Wikipedia

Draft:Giovanni Timoteo Calosso

Giovanni Timoteo Calosso
Bey
Portrait of Calosso (early 1800s)
Personal details
Born24 January 1789
Chivasso, Turin, Kingdom of Sardinia
Died27 March 1865 (aged 76)
Nice, Second French Empire
SpouseSecondina Tarino Imperiali
OccupationSoldier, memoirist
Military service
Allegiance
Branch/service
Years of service1806 – 1839
Battles/wars

Giovanni Timoteo Calosso or Calasso (24 January 1789 – 27 March 1865), also known as Rüstem Bey, was an Italian soldier. Calosso saw action in multiple countries under the army of Napoleon Bonaparte. Shortly before Napoleon's fall, Calosso returned to his native Turin and served in the Royal Sardinian Army until the Carbonari uprising. After traveling to multiple countries, Calosso ended up in the Ottoman Empire and served Sultan Mahmud II for 13 years. He was, for some time, at the forefront of Ottoman-Sardinian relations.

Early life and career

edit

Childhood and education

edit

Calosso was born to a family of humble origins in Chivasso, a comune within Turin, Kingdom of Sardinia on 24 January 1789. He was baptised at the Collegiate Church of Santa Maria Assunta. His godfather was architect of Verolengo, Giovanni Comoglio, and his godmother was Comoglio's sister, Caterina. Calosso had seven siblings; four male, three female. His father died in 1795 when he was six years old. Calosso's widowed mother struggled to keep his father's business afloat while simultaneously raising eight children.[1]

Despite the family's financial setbacks, Calosso enrolled at the age of 10 in a boarding school (now Liceo Newton). After becoming familiar with Latin and French in the school, at the age of 15 his mother tried to convince him to start a career in commerce. Heavily inspired by the Napoleonic era, Calosso instead wanted to pursue a military career characterised by glory. In 1805, he read a bulletin released by the Grande Armée. This cemented his desire to enter into the military, prompting him to leave his family behind on 5 August 1806, at the age of 17, to serve in the Napoleonic army at Pinerolo and Bassano del Grappa. A fit and tall man, he was immediately accepted and trained by officers who saw potential in him.[1]

Napoleonic wars

edit

Calosso was sent to participate in the War of the Fourth Coalition against Prussia in early 1807. Crossing the Vistula, he made his way to Elbing in Prussian-occupied Poland. He acted as a Latin translator between army officials and Polish priests in this journey. From there, the army marched on to Finckenstein Palace, where Napoleon (a fellow ethnic Italian and Lombard) would supervise them.[2] At a ceremony held in the premises of the palace, near the Emperor was a Turkish dignitary wearing a large turban. Calosso would later write in his memoirs, "Who would have thought then that twenty years later I would wear the turban in the service of Sultan Mahmoud?". In 1809, during the War of the Fifth Coalition, Calosso was promoted to brigadier. By the next year, he was made maréchal des logis.[1]

 
Finckenstein Palace

Often under the command of Napoleon and Horace Sebastiani during his time in the French army (in cavalry units), Calosso participated in four wars for the country; the War of the Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Coalitions, as well as the French Invasion of Russia. He was also present at the Battle of Leipzig as aide-de-camp to Sebastiani. Thus, Calosso's service in the French army saw him travel thousands of miles from the Po to the Dnieper.[3]

 
Battle of Leipzig

Return to Sardinia

edit

Shortly before the fall of Napoleon, Calosso resigned from the French military on 20 August 1814. Returning to his homeland, he reunited with his family and saw his sergeant brother, Probo, who he had coincidentally come across previously during the disastrous Battle of Berezina. He had also met his sister, Camilla, who married a sapper, Santa. Soon after his arrival, Calosso attempted to join the Sardinian army, but was unable to as only nobles could be recruited as officers. As a result, he remained as King Victor Emmanuel I's farrier until March 1815 when he was made trumpeter.[4]

Carbonari uprising and exile

edit

In 1821, Calosso participated in the Carbonari uprising, a nationalistic movement that demanded a new constitution and the establishment of a parliament. During the revolt, King Victor Emmanuel I abdicated in favour of his brother, Charles Felix of Sardinia, who with Austrian military intervention managed to squash the rebellion on 8 April. Excommunicated and forced to abandon his wife, Secondina Tarino Imperiali (d. 23 September 1858), and his son Emilio, Calosso entered into exile to avoid imprisonment for his role in the uprising.[4]

 
Hangings of the main Carbonari leaders, Michele Morelli and Giuseppe Silvati in Naples

Greek War of Independence

edit

Like other exiles, Calosso remained a wanderer, traveling and offering his services to multiple countries such as France, Switzerland, Spain, Belgium and England between 1821 and 1826. In 1826, he embarked on a ship from England to Nauplia with other exiled Italians from the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies led by Lieutenant Colonel Pisa. There in Ottoman Greece, he fought for the cause of the Greek independence. However, during his short service, he is said to have been disgusted by how the Greeks had treated him and his people with ingratitude. This maltreatment by the Greeks prompted Calosso and many other Italians to switch to the side of the Ottomans.[4]

 
Greek revolution

Life in the Ottoman Empire

edit

Arrival and first years

edit

On 15 June 1826, Sultan Mahmud II forcibly disbanded the Janissary Corps in an event memorialised as the Auspicious Incident. Following the incident, the Sultan made it known that he was looking for experienced (Christian) European soldiers who could train the newly established army.[5] Having heard this, Calosso set sail for Izmir. After landing, he headed to Istanbul. As a trial, he was first made a riding instructor, teaching soldiers how to master the riding, handling, and training of horses. Impressed by his skills, Mahmud II invited Calosso to his residence in mid-1827 to compete with an Austrian dragoon officer for a position at the court. Emerging victorious, he was first tasked with training 280 iç oğlanlar into cavalrymen at the Topkapı Palace. Due to most soldiers viewing the Christian countries of Europe as enemies of Islam, Calosso and other Christian Europeans at the Ottoman court (such as Helmuth von Moltke) struggled to carry out their duties effectively. In an attempt to address this issue, Mahmud II bestowed on Calosso the name Rüstem and the titles of ağa and tâlimci başı (chief instructor of the cavalry) so that he would not be viewed as an outsider.[6]

In December 1828, Calosso was promoted to Bey. In a short period, he had managed to become one of the most favoured advisors of the Sultan, accompanying him on many trips. An influential figure in the Ottoman court, his prestige was notable enough that the Sardinian ambassador to the Sublime Porte, Marquis Vincenzo Gropallo, and Gaetano Truqui, Sardinian consul general in Istanbul, regularly met with Calosso despite his status as an exile. However, they did manage to convince King Charles Felix to pardon him for his involvement in the Carbonari uprising. Over the years, Calosso was honored with multiple medals by the Sultan, such as the Nişan-ı İftihar (Order of Glory), which he helped create with the help of two other Italians in Ottoman service; diplomat Giuseppe Baratta and painter Luigi Gobbi. Among his students were Luigi Calligaris and sometimes even the Sultan himself.[4]

 
The Nişan-ı İftihar

Mediation in Ottoman-Sardinian relations

edit

Calosso often acted as a mediator between the Ottoman and Sardinian states. For example, he succeeded in obtaining an exclusive exemption that let Sardinian and Ligurian vessels continue their trade in the Black Sea to ports in the western Mediterranean and the Atlantic, despite the Ottoman embargo imposed on European merchant ships operating in the Black Sea. There are also many instances where he utilised his position as the Sultan's advisor by involving himself in the politics of the country. For example, in 1828, when the Ottoman Empire was discussing the prospect of going to war with Russia once again, Calosso voiced reservations about taking on a strong foe while the Ottoman army was still undergoing major reforms.[7]

Using his power at the Ottoman court, Calosso convinced numerous Sardinians to enter into Ottoman service, most notably Giuseppe Donizetti, the man who contributed to the introduction of European classical music to the country. Donizetti also composed the first imperial anthem of the Ottoman Empire. Another occasion where Calosso's closeness to the Sultan can be seen is when he managed to overcome court objections and proposed to the Sultan the idea of posing for a portrait, in violation of religious customs. Mahmud II agreed, and the miniature portrait was drawn by Sardinian painter Luigi Gobbi. The painting was a success and out of the three copies, one was sent to King Charles Felix.[8]

Egyptian–Ottoman War (1831–1833)

edit

Sultan Mahmud II, angered at the ineptitude of senior commanders during the war, replaced one of them with Calosso. Under the command of Hussein Agha Pasha, he made his way to Konya alongside 45,000 soldiers under the leadership of Koca Hüsrev Mehmed Pasha in April 1832.[9] While there, he experienced major disagreements with Hüsrev Pasha and the cavalrymen under his command. Feigning illness, he returned to Istanbul where he would compose a report about his experiences and present it to the Sultan. Calosso claims that the Pasha had said the following to him after being criticised:

"How naive you are, Mr. Rüstem! You complain about the theft of soldiers. But my dear sir, all commanders steal from their soldiers as much as they can. I steal too! Even the junior officers and soldiers who complain about this for publicity today will steal like their commanders when they replace them tomorrow!"[10]

Last years in the country

edit

Calosso's report where he denounced Grand Vizier Hüsrev Pasha and the corruption in the army was not well-met. Although he still maintained his friendship with the Sultan, it was not as close as before due to Hüsrev Pasha's influence over Mahmud II. He was also stripped of his role as a military advisor. From 1832 to 1839, Calosso returned to training soldiers and giving private lessons on horsemanship.[11]

Over the years, Calosso had become the founder of regular cavalry squadrons in the new Ottoman army and replaced the centuries-old Turkish way of riding, saddle, and stirrup with those of Hungarian hussars. This was viewed as a major mistake by British military observers because the Ottoman cavalrymen could not adapt to the dramatic changes. Even the Sultan had fallen multiple times during his private sessions with Calosso in the Gülhane Park.[12]

Injury and departure from the country

edit

Only three days after Mahmud II's death and two days after Abdülmecid I's ascension to the throne, on 4 July 1839, Calosso fell from his horse during Abdülmecid's accession ceremony and suffered a major injury. Forced to retire, the Sultan conferred upon him a monthly pension of 2500 piastres (600 franc) and a one-time payment of 25,000 piastres for his services. Granted a six-month leave with full pay by the Sultan to better recover from his injury, he embarked for Sardinia with his Sardinian passport on 17 January 1840, arriving in Turin at the end of February. In the capital, Calosso was well received and had an audience with King Charles Albert. Returning to Istanbul on 5 June of the same year, he lived there for another three years. On 16 September 1843, Calosso permanently left the Ottoman Empire for Trieste with his son Emilio, who had pursued a consular career.[4]

A month before his departure in August 1843, government gazette Moniteur Ottoman wrote:

"His Excellency the Sultan has granted Colonel Calosso a retirement pension of two thousand five hundred piastres per month (six hundred francs), plus twenty-five thousand piastres as a one-time reward. Colonel Calosso is the most senior of the European instructors in the service of the Porte. It is to him that we owe the formation of the entire regular cavalry, and through the loyalty of his character as well as his military talents, he earned the esteem of Sultan Mahmud, who always showed him great kindness. He has rendered real services to Turkey, and the generous way in which he is treated today is the fitting reward for eighteen years of service, work, and devotion. Colonel Calosso intends to enjoy his retirement pension in Piedmont, his homeland, and he leaves with the regrets of the government and the esteem of all who know him."[13]

Later life

edit

Despite moving abroad, Calosso's pension from the Sultan was paid till his death. He moved to Savoy at an unknown date and left for Nice a few years before the French annexation of the region. In 1857, he released his memoirs with the help of his friend Auguste Burnel, who translated, edited, and published the memoirs in Turin and Nice. In his memoirs, he details his time in the service of multiple countries. He was especially fond of Napoleon and Mahmud II, both of whom he does not once criticise in his memoirs. Calosso praises Mahmud II for his undying kindness, also stating that the Sultan repeatedly defended him against those who denounced him out of jealousy or prejudice.[14]

Death

edit

Calosso died on 27 March 1865, at his residence in the Piazza del Giardino Pubblico (Public Garden Square), now Jardin Albert I.[1]

 
Jardin Albert I

Citations

edit
  1. ^ a b c d Dassano, Fabrizio (February 2021). "Giovanni Timoteo Calasso da Chivasso alla Sublime Porta del Sultano Mahmud II" [Giovanni Timoteo Calasso from Chivasso to the Sublime Gate of Sultan Mahmud II] (in Italian). Risveglio Popolare.
  2. ^ McLynn, Frank (1997). Napoleon: A Biography. London: Jonathan Cape. p. 2. ISBN 9780712662475.
  3. ^ Costanza 2005, p. 39.
  4. ^ a b c d e de Leone, Enrico (1973). "CALOSSO, Giovanni Timoteo". Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani.
  5. ^ Goodwin, Jason (1999). Lords of the Horizons: A History of the Ottoman Empire. New York City: Random House. pp. 296–299. ISBN 9780099994008.
  6. ^ Costanza 2005, p. 40.
  7. ^ Costanza 2005, p. 43.
  8. ^ Costanza 2005, p. 44.
  9. ^ Yayın Kurulu (1999). Hüsrev Mehmet Paşa (Koca). Yaşamları ve Yapıtlarıyla Osmanlılar Ansiklopedisi (in Turkish). Vol. 2. Istanbul: Yapı Kredi Kültür Sanat Yayıncılık A.Ş. pp. 598–599.
  10. ^ de Leone 1967, p. 87.
  11. ^ Yıldız, Gültekin (November 2011). "Ottoman military organization (1800–1918)". In Gordon Martel (ed.). The Encyclopedia of War. Ankara: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 5. doi:10.1002/9781444338232. ISBN 9781405190374.
  12. ^ Yıldız, Gültekin (2013). "Askeri Düzenlemeler" [Military Changes]. In Ali Akyıldız (ed.). Osmanlı Devletinde Yenileşme Hareketleri [Reformation Movements in the Ottoman Empire] (PDF). Eskişehir: Anadolu University. p. 33. ISBN 9789750629457.
  13. ^ Costanza 2005, p. 42.
  14. ^ Costanza 2005, pp. 44–46.

References

edit



This page will be placed in the following categories if it is moved to the article namespace.
Categories:
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Draft:Giovanni_Timoteo_Calosso&oldid=1245223011"