Timeline of music in the United States (1950–1969)

Timeline of music in the United States
Music history of the United States
Colonial erato the Civil WarDuring the Civil WarLate 19th century1900–19401950s1960s1970s1980s

This is a timeline of music in the United States from 1950 to 1969.

1950

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Early 1950s music trends

1951

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1952

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1953

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1954

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1955

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Mid-1950s music trends
  • Bluegrass music begins moving outside of country audiences to mainstream listeners, including Mike Seeger and Ralph Rinzler, both of whom would go on to play a major role in bluegrass history.[48]
  • The black urban popular music rhythm and blues inspires the white teenage popular music rock and roll.[88]
  • A number of jazz musicians, including pianist Horace Silver, move towards a style known as funk, characterized by the subordination of "melody and harmony to the rhythmic groove".[89]
  • The term bluegrass comes to describe a kind of country-based music, popular especially in rural areas and among those in the urban revival of American folk music.[90]
  • Rockabilly is the most popular form of country music.
  • The Clara Ward Singers begin their period of greatest success with a series of records released by Savoy.[91]
  • Church groups and others begin to denounce rock and roll, "connecting it in an unholy alliance to race, sex and delinquency".[33]
  • Isidro López' band achieves unprecedented commercial success and changes the Tejano big band into a more distinctive and smaller format, influenced strongly by the corrido.[92]

1956

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  • The Wizard of Oz is first shown on television, beginning its transformation into an iconic symbol of American culture.[120]
  • Elvis Presley first performs on network television, on CBS's Stage Show, making him the "hottest act in show business" at the time.[121] His hit "Heartbreak Hotel" becomes "the prototype for a new genre of morbidly self-pitying rock songs".[122] He also appears on The Ed Sullivan Show, but is taped only from the waist up because his hip movements are seen as too risqué for American audiences.[123] Later in the year, after a performance of "Hound Dog" on The Milton Berle Show in which he grabs his crotch and gyrates his hips in a sexually charged manner, Presley becomes the subject of criticism for what they saw as degenerate moral values.[124] "Hound Dog" would go on to become the biggest selling record of the 1950s,[125] and Presley's performance will play a major role in launching his career.[126]
  • Columbia House becomes the first record club in the United States.[127]
  • Pat Boone, who had released a string of hit cover versions of African-American popular songs that sold better than the original, releases a cover of Little Richard's "Long Tall Sally". Boone's version is outsold by Little Richard, an event that Keir Keightley called a "symbolic (and) economic triumph of original rock'n'roll over its putatively inferior and commercial copy".[128]
  • Forbidden Planet becomes the first movie to have an all-electronic music soundtrack. This was the first widespread exposure to electronic music for ordinary Americans. The soundtrack's composers were the husband and wife team Bebe and Louis Barron.[129]
  • My Fair Lady smashes Broadway records, and will run for six years and a total of 2,717 performances.[130]
  • Nat King Cole becomes the first "African-American to headline a TV network variety series", The Nat King Cole Show.[131]
  • The Clancy Brothers form Tradition, a record label, originally just to record themselves, however, they would go on to record popular folk musicians such as Lightnin' Hopkins and Odetta Hopkins.[132]
  • The word bluegrass is first used in print.[90]
  • Cover versions of popular songs by African-American artists decline, in large part because the original, African-American recording begins to outsell the covers.[33]
  • Members of the Alabama Citizens' Council assault Nat King Cole onstage, leading to massive media attention to the Christian anti-rock and roll movement. Later that year, Louisiana passes a law forbidding interracial social functions, entertainment or dancing of any kind.[33]
  • The Navy School of Music takes over all individual advanced training for military musicians.[7]
  • The Coasters' "Down in Mexico" is the first in a string of hits by that group, popularizing a style of "teenage-oriented productions,... mainly novelty songs (with) comic lyrics and a playful vocal style accompanied by a rhythm and blues combo".[41]
  • "Blue Suede Shoes" by Carl Perkins becomes a massive success and is the "first million-selling triple-play crossover (to move) from the top of the country charts, to those of rhythm & blues, and then pop".[133]
  • Dizzy Gillespie's jazz orchestra becomes the first such group to be officially recognized by the U.S. government, when it is chosen to tour as a goodwill ambassador for the State Department.[134]
  • The Carl Orff method of music instruction is introduced by Arnold Walter at a Music Educators National Conference in St. Louis.[135]
  • The film Rock Around the Clock is the first of many to frame a rock performance as a dramatic account of rock culture. Reports of rioting fuel controversy and help perpetuate the notion that rock is linked to juvenile delinquency. Similar films are released later in the year: Rock, Rock, Rock and The Girl Can't Help It.[97]

1957

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1958

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Late 1950s music trends

1959

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1960

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Early 1960s music trends
  • Performers like the New Lost City Ramblers, Joan Baez and Odetta "slowly pushed the (American folk revival) towards a new maturity" by "modernizing their approach and repertoire" with elements of popular music; of these performers, Baez becomes simultaneously one of the most commercially successful and popularly respected, both by folk music purists and more casual audiences, artists of the American folk revival, and makes her record label, Vanguard Records, one of the top labels of the era.[191]
  • After years of being intimidated by the anti-Communist McCarthy hearings, balalaika orchestras experience a resurgence; veterans of older orchestras of the same format rejoined the industry, including Mark Selivan, Sergei Larionoff and Luke Bakoota.[11]
  • Bluegrass becomes an integral part of the folk revival scene, and many adherents of that movement form bluegrass bands.[90]
  • The earliest roots of salsa music begin to emerge.[33]
  • Major record labels regain their former market dominance in the field of pop music, having succumbed for a brief time to a surge of success for independent rhythm and blues and rock and roll labels.[33]
  • The earliest roots of salsa music emerge in the Latin, especially Puerto Rican, community of New York City.[33]
  • The three groups of Old Believers, Russian Orthodox Christians who refused to accept liturgical reform in the 17th century, settle in Woodburn, Oregon; each group has their own distinct style of music, though they will soon syncretize, with one style, known as Harbintsi, becoming the most dominant.[57]
  • Many Greek American bands begin playing in a format popularized by Trio Bel Canto, in which vocalists sing in three-part harmony, accompanied by two bouzoukis and a rhythm guitar.[57]
  • Irish American showbands, smartly dressed performance groups who did popular covers, begin touring the United States, displacing the dance hall band that had long dominated Irish American music[192]

1961

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1962

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1963

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1964

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1965

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Mid-1960s music trends

1966

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1967

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1968

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Late 1960s music trends

1969

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References

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Notes

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  1. ^ Miller, p. 39.
  2. ^ Miller, p. 46.
  3. ^ Miller, pp. 48–49.
  4. ^ Miller, pp. 187–188. This claim is in quotes in Miller, but is not specifically cited.
  5. ^ Lankford, p. xii.
  6. ^ a b c Mitchell, p. 70.
  7. ^ a b c d U.S. Army Bands
  8. ^ Laing, Dave. "Jukebox". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 513–515.
  9. ^ Crawford, p. 709.
  10. ^ a b Crawford, p. 764.
  11. ^ a b c Livingston, Tamara E. and Katherine K. Preston, "Snapshot: Two Views of Music and Class", pp. 55–62, in Garland Encyclopedia of World Music.
  12. ^ a b c Wolfe, Charles K. and Jacqueline Cogdell DjeDje, "Snapshot: Two Views of Music, Race, Ethnicity, and Nationhood", pp. 76–86, in Garland Encyclopedia of World Music.
  13. ^ a b c Rycenga, Jennifer, Denise A. Seachrist and Elaine Keillor, "Snapshot: Three Views of Music and Religion", pp. 129–139, in Garland Encyclopedia of World Music.
  14. ^ a b c Loza, Steven. "Latin Caribbean". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 790–801.
  15. ^ a b c Zheng, Su. "Chinese Music". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 957–966.
  16. ^ a b Mitchell, p. 62.
  17. ^ Bird, p. 45, calls this the "urbanization" of traditional blues.
  18. ^ Lankford, p. 54
  19. ^ a b Atton, Chris. "Fanzines". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 226–228.
  20. ^ Lankford, p. 67.
  21. ^ Darden, p. 215.
  22. ^ Sanjek, David and Will Straw, "The Music Industry", pp. 256–267, in Garland Encyclopedia of World Music.
  23. ^ a b c d Cornelius, Steven, Charlotte J. Frisbie and John Shepherd, "Snapshot: Four Views of Music, Government, and Politics", pp.304–319, in The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music.
  24. ^ Chase, p. 519.
  25. ^ Chase, p. 555.
  26. ^ a b c d Southern, p. 485.
  27. ^ a b Bird, p. 235.
  28. ^ a b c Halper, Donna. "Radio Free Europe". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 464–465.
  29. ^ Laing, Dave. "Sun Records". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 760–761.
  30. ^ Laing, Dave. "Word". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 774–775.
  31. ^ a b Crawford, p. 737
  32. ^ Crawford, p. 725.
  33. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Ho, Fred, Jeremy Wallach, Beverly Diamond, Ron Pen, Rob Bowman and Sara Nicholson, "Snapshot: Five Fusions", pp. 334–361, in Garland Encyclopedia of World Music.
  34. ^ Crawford, pp. 739–740.
  35. ^ Miller, p. 42.
  36. ^ a b c d e f Bacon, Tony. "Electric guitars". New Grove Dictionary of Music. pp. 27–29.
  37. ^ Miller, pp. 53–54; quotes around dynamic obsolescence in Miller.
  38. ^ a b Miller, p. 188.
  39. ^ Darden, p. 291.
  40. ^ a b c d e Wright, Jacqueline R. B. "Concert Music". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 603–613.
  41. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Maultsby, Portia K. "R&B and Soul". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 667–679.
  42. ^ "Janet Collins, 86; Ballerina Was First Black Artist at Met Opera", The New York Times.
  43. ^ a b c d e f Southern, pp. 361–364.
  44. ^ a b c d Schrader, Barry. New Grove Dictionary of American Music. pp. 30–35.
  45. ^ Crawford, p. 703.
  46. ^ Koskoff, p. 255.
  47. ^ Crawford, p. 707.
  48. ^ a b Crawford, p. 741
  49. ^ Miller, p. 59.
  50. ^ Miller, p. 66.
  51. ^ Lankford, p. 40.
  52. ^ Wells, Paul F. "Folkways Records.". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 721–722.
  53. ^ Kearns, Williams. "Overview of Music in the United States". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 519–553.
  54. ^ a b c d e Cornelius, Steven. "Afro-Cuban Music". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 783–789.
  55. ^ a b c Miller, Rebecca S. "Irish Music". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 842–846.
  56. ^ Gedutis, p. 40.
  57. ^ a b c d e Levy, Mark. "Eastern European Music". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 908–918.
  58. ^ a b c d Steiner, Fred; Martin Marks. "Film music". New Grove Dictionary of Music, Volume II: E – K.
  59. ^ Echols, Paul C. "Early-music revival". The New Grove Dictionary of American Music, Volume II: E-K. pp. 2–6.
  60. ^ Coleman, p. 71.
  61. ^ Hansen, p. 271.
  62. ^ Laing, Dave. "Rack Jobber". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. p. 562.
  63. ^ Miller, p. 61.
  64. ^ Miller, pp. 69–73.
  65. ^ Lankford, p. 81
  66. ^ Darden, p. 236.
  67. ^ Campbell, Patricia Sheehan and Rita Klinger, "Learning", pp. 274–287, in Garland Encyclopedia of World Music.
  68. ^ a b c d Bergey, Barry, "Government and Politics", pp. 288–303, in Garland Encyclopedia of World Music.
  69. ^ a b c d e Monson, Ingrid. "Jazz". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 650–666.
  70. ^ Levy, Mark; Carl Rahkonen and Ain Haas. "Scandinavian and Baltic Music". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 866–881.
  71. ^ Clarke, p. 210.
  72. ^ a b Hilts, Janet; David Buckley and John Shepherd. "Crime". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 189–196.
  73. ^ Bird, p. 90.
  74. ^ Crawford, p. 729.
  75. ^ Miller, pp. 79–80.
  76. ^ a b Crawford, p. 765.
  77. ^ Bastian, Vanessa. "Instrument Manufacture". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 526–529.
  78. ^ Horn, David. "Bibliographies". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 7–11.
  79. ^ Crawford, p. 766.
  80. ^ a b c Southern, p. 504.
  81. ^ Miller, pp. 42–43
  82. ^ a b c Moore, p. xv.
  83. ^ Miller, pp. 73–74, 78.
  84. ^ Southern, p. 518.
  85. ^ Darden, p. 224.
  86. ^ Keeling, Richard. "California". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 412–419.Herzog, George (1928). "The Yuman Musical Style". Journal of American Folklore. 41 (160): 183–231. doi:10.2307/534896. JSTOR 534896. and Nettl, Bruno (1954). North American Indian Musical Styles. Philadelphia: American Folklore Society. ISBN 9780292735248.
  87. ^ a b c d Loza, Steven. "Hispanic California". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 734–753.
  88. ^ Crawford, p. 762.
  89. ^ Crawford, p. 767.
  90. ^ a b c d e f Post, Jennifer C., Neil V. Rosenberg and Holly Kruse, "Snapshot: How Music and Place Intertwine", pp. 153–172, in Garland Encyclopedia of World Music
  91. ^ Darden, p. 208.
  92. ^ a b c Reyna, José R. "Tejano Music". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 770–782.
  93. ^ a b c d e Music Moments Archived 2008-09-07 at the Wayback Machine, Hyphen.
  94. ^ Crawford, p. 734.
  95. ^ Miller, p. 88.
  96. ^ Southern, p. 520.
  97. ^ a b Strachan, Robert; Marion Leonard. "Popular Music in Film". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 318–322.
  98. ^ Miller, p. 98.
  99. ^ Miller, p. 105.
  100. ^ Miller, pp. 110–113.
  101. ^ Miller, pp. 114–118.
  102. ^ Miller, p. 123
  103. ^ Miller, pp. 123–126.
  104. ^ a b Lankford, p. xiii.
  105. ^ Lankford, p. 15.
  106. ^ Lankford, p. 79.
  107. ^ a b c Burnim, Mellonee V. "Religious Music". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music.
  108. ^ Southern, p. 412.
  109. ^ a b c d Kassabian, Anahid, "Film", pp. 202–205, in Garland Encyclopedia of World Music.
  110. ^ Levine, Victoria Lindsay; Judith A. Gray. "Musical Interactions". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 480–490., Howard, James H. (1955). "The Pan-Indian Culture of Oklahoma". Scientific Monthly. 18 (5): 215–220. Bibcode:1955SciMo..81..215H.
  111. ^ Reyes, Adelaida. "IDentity, Diversity, and Interaction". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 504–518.Baker, Theodore (1881). Über die Musik der nordamerikanischen Wilden. Leipzig: Breitkopf u. Härtel.
  112. ^ a b Horn, David. "Histories". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 31–38.
  113. ^ a b c d e Sheehy, Daniel; Steven Loza. "Overview". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 718–733.
  114. ^ Chase, p. 606
  115. ^ "Robert McFerrin Sr., First Black Male Soloist at Metropolitan Opera, Dies at 85", PlayBillArts.
  116. ^ Bird, p. 354.
  117. ^ a b Southern, p. 607.
  118. ^ Horn, David. "Encyclopedias". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 20–25.
  119. ^ Marlowe, Robert J. "Tally Recording Studio". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music. p. 676.
  120. ^ Crawford, pp. 685–686.
  121. ^ Crawford, p. 732.
  122. ^ Miller, p. 130.
  123. ^ Cohen, Sara; Marion Leonard. "Gender and Sexuality". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 231–237.
  124. ^ Miller, pp. 132–133.
  125. ^ Miller, p. 137.
  126. ^ a b Laing, Dave; Olivier Julien and Catherine Budent. "Television Shows". The Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 474–476.
  127. ^ Laing, Dave. "Record Clubs". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 563–564.
  128. ^ Keightley, Keir. "Cover Version". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music. pp. 614–616.
  129. ^ Hinkle-Turner, p. 15.
  130. ^ Crawford, p. 774.
  131. ^ Miller, p. 158.
  132. ^ Lankford, p. 66.
  133. ^ Spitzer, Nick. "The 100 most important American musical works of the 20th century — Blue Suede Shoes". NPR 100. National Public Radio. Retrieved May 10, 2008.
  134. ^ Southern, p. 490.
  135. ^ a b c d e f g Colwell, Richard; James W. Pruett and Pamela Bristah. "Education". New Grove Dictionary of Music. pp. 11–21.
  136. ^ Crawford, p. 743.
  137. ^ Crawford, p. 769.
  138. ^ Crawford, pp. 770–771.
  139. ^ Miller, pp. 140–142.
  140. ^ Miller, pp. 145–146. Miller attributes the statement "that teenage pop listeners... for television programs" to "ABC programming vice president Ted Fetter".
  141. ^ Miller, p. 160.
  142. ^ Laing, Dave. "Oldie". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. p. 557.
  143. ^ a b Cockrell, Dale and Andrew M. Zinck, "Popular Music of the Parlor and Stage", pp. 179–201, in Garland Encyclopedia of World Music.
  144. ^ Darden, pp. 231–232.
  145. ^ a b c Stillman, Amy Ku'uleialoha. "Polynesian Music". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 1047–1053.
  146. ^ Chase, p. 518.
  147. ^ Garofalo, Reebee. "American Bandstand". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. p. 440.
  148. ^ Southern, p. 481.
  149. ^ a b Crawford, p. 697.
  150. ^ a b Adinolfi, Francesco. "Exoticism". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 220–223.
  151. ^ Pruter, Robert; Paul Oliver and The Editors. "Chicago". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. Retrieved July 9, 2008. {{cite book}}: |author2= has generic name (help)
  152. ^ Rumble, John W. "Bradley Film and Recording Studios/Bradley's Barn". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music. pp. 650–651.
  153. ^ Malone and Stricklin, p. 130.
  154. ^ Crawford, p. 799.
  155. ^ Lankford, p. 27.
  156. ^ Lankford, p. 94.
  157. ^ Lankford, p. 96.
  158. ^ a b c d e Kealiinohomoku, Joann W. and Mary Jane Warner, "Dance", pp. 206–226, in Garland Encyclopedia of World Music.
  159. ^ a b c Pegley, Karen and Rob Haskins, "Snapshot: Two Forms of Electronic Music", pp. 250–255, in Garland Encyclopedia of World Music.
  160. ^ Evans, David. "Blues". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 637–649.
  161. ^ a b Levy, Mark. "Central European Music". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 884–903.
  162. ^ Peterson, Richard; Will Straw and Dave Laing. "Television". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 471–474.
  163. ^ Miller, p. 147.
  164. ^ Miller, p. 149.
  165. ^ Miller, p. 161.
  166. ^ Miller, p. 162.
  167. ^ a b c d Haskins, Rob, "Orchestral and Chamber Music in the Twentieth Century", pp. 173–178, in Garland Encyclopedia of World Music.
  168. ^ Gooding, Erik D. (440–450). "Plains". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music.
  169. ^ a b c Diamond, Beverly; Barbara Benary. "Indonesian Music". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 1011–1023.
  170. ^ a b Southern, p. 566.
  171. ^ a b Buckley, David. "Halls of Fame/Museums". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 29–31.
  172. ^ Laing, Dave; John Shepherd. "Trade Organizations". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 569–570.
  173. ^ Théberge, Paul. "Mono". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music. p. 437.
  174. ^ Laing, Dave. "Awards". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 533–535.
  175. ^ Crawford, p. 705.
  176. ^ Crawford, p. 744.
  177. ^ Crawford, pp. 794–795.
  178. ^ Fitzgerald, Jon. "Motown". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 742–743.
  179. ^ Hinkle-Turner, p. 16.
  180. ^ a b Miller, p. 164.
  181. ^ Strachan, Robert; Marion Leonard. "Film and Television Documentaries". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 26–29.
  182. ^ Laing, Dave; John Shepherd. "Plugging". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 560–561.
  183. ^ Lankford, p. 74.
  184. ^ Stanbridge, Alan. "Englewood Cliffs Studios". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music. pp. 659–660.
  185. ^ Lankford, p. 86.
  186. ^ Southern, p. 515.
  187. ^ Norfleet, Dawn M. "Hip-Hop and Rap". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 692–704.
  188. ^ Trimillos, Ricardo D. "Filipino Music". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 1024–1027.
  189. ^ Chase, pp. 519–520.
  190. ^ Komara, p. 442.
  191. ^ Lankford, pp. 71–73.
  192. ^ a b Gedutis, p. 160.
  193. ^ Miller, pp. 168–170
  194. ^ Lankford, p. 67 (emphasis in original).
  195. ^ Lankford, p. 123.
  196. ^ Southern, p. 472.
  197. ^ Bird, p. 52.
  198. ^ a b c d Maultsby, Portia K.; Mellonee V. Burnin and Susan Oehler. "Overview". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 572–591.
  199. ^ Koskoff, p. 333.
  200. ^ Chase, p. 629.
  201. ^ Miller, p. 185. (This claim is in quotes in Miller, but is not specifically cited.)
  202. ^ Miller, p. 185 (emphasis in original).
  203. ^ Lankford, p. 116.
  204. ^ "Opening the Gates for Black Opera Singers", New York Times.
  205. ^ Bird, p. 32.
  206. ^ Malone and Stricklin, p. 149.
  207. ^ Bogdanov, p. 153.
  208. ^ Southern, pp. 481–482
  209. ^ Southern, p. 498.
  210. ^ Gedutis, p. 200.
  211. ^ a b U.S. Army Bands.
  212. ^ Allmusic: The Valadiers.
  213. ^ Laing, Dave. "A&M Records". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. p. 683.
  214. ^ Crawford, p. 698.
  215. ^ Crawford, p. 795.
  216. ^ Lankford, p. 111, Emphasis in original.
  217. ^ Lankford, pp. 125–126.
  218. ^ Lankford, pp. 131–132.
  219. ^ Cohen, p. 265.
  220. ^ Lankford, p. 138–139.
  221. ^ Lankford, p. 145.
  222. ^ Darden, p. 270.
  223. ^ a b Riis, Thomas L. "Musical Theater". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 614–623.
  224. ^ a b Titcomb, Caldwell (Spring 1990). "Black String Musicians: Ascending the Scale". Black Music Research Journal. 10 (1). Center for Black Music Research – Columbia College Chicago and University of Illinois Press: 107–112. doi:10.2307/779543. JSTOR 779543.
  225. ^ Southern, p. 516.
  226. ^ Murray, p. 265.
  227. ^ Linehan, Andrew. "Soundcarrier". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 359–366.
  228. ^ a b Théberge, Paul. "Amplifier". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 505–506.
  229. ^ Koskoff, p. 131.
  230. ^ Crawford, p. 788.
  231. ^ Crawford, p. 797.
  232. ^ Lankford, ix-x
  233. ^ Lankford, pp. 147–148.
  234. ^ Lankford, p. 149.
  235. ^ a b Chase, p. 627.
  236. ^ Lankford, p. 158.
  237. ^ Lankford, p. 165.
  238. ^ Courlander, Harold (1956). Negro Folk Music of Alabama. Folkways Records FE 4417.
  239. ^ Darden, p. 271.
  240. ^ a b c Maultsby, Portia K.; Isaac Kalumbu. "African American Studies". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 47–54.
  241. ^ Neal, Mark Anthony. "Black Studies". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 56–59.
  242. ^ a b Lindberg, Ulf; Gestur Gudmundsson, Morten Michelsen and Hans Weisethaunet. "Popular Music Criticism". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 304–308.
  243. ^ Slobin, Mark. "Jewish Music". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 933–945.
  244. ^ Southern, p. 430.
  245. ^ Southern, p. 482.
  246. ^ a b c Buckley, David; John Shepherd and Berndt Ostendorf. "Death". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 200–204.
  247. ^ Crawford, p. 800.
  248. ^ Miller, pp. 227–228 (emphasis in original).
  249. ^ Lankford, p. 162.
  250. ^ Malone and Stricklin, p. 123.
  251. ^ Koskoff, p. 266.
  252. ^ Chase, p. 520.
  253. ^ Laing, Dave. "Agent". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 532–533.
  254. ^ Crawford, p. 745 (emphasis in original).
  255. ^ Bird, p. 419.
  256. ^ a b c Crawford, p. 809.
  257. ^ Crawford, pp. 825–826; Quote is cited to Philip Glass from Duckworth, William (1995). Talking Music: Conversations with John Cage, Philip Glass, Laurie Anderson, and Five Generations of American Experimental Composers. New York: Schirmer.
  258. ^ Crawford, pp. 825–826.
  259. ^ Darden, p. 247.
  260. ^ a b c Arnold, Alison. "Indian and Pakistani Music". Garland Encyclopedia of Music. pp. 980–987.
  261. ^ a b Sonneborn, D. Atesh. "Snapshot: Sufi Music and Dance". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 1042–1046.
  262. ^ Buckley, David; John Shepherd. "Drugs and Addiction". Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 210–213.
  263. ^ Crawford, p. 695.
  264. ^ Koskoff, pp. 31–32.
  265. ^ Lankford, p. 181
  266. ^ Mitchell, p. 136
  267. ^ Crawford, gp. 790.
  268. ^ Lankford, p. xv.
  269. ^ Miller, pp. 222–223.
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Further reading

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