Timeline of music in the United States (1820–1849)

Timeline of music in the United States
Music history of the United States
Colonial erato the Civil WarDuring the Civil WarLate 19th century1900–19401950s1960s1970s1980s

This is a timeline of music in the United States from 1820 to 1849.

1820

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Early 1820s music trends
  • The Boston 'Euterpiad becomes the first American periodical devoted to the parlor song.[5]
  • The all-black African Grove theater in Manhattan begins staging with pieces by playwright William Henry Brown and Shakespeare, sometimes with additional songs and dances designed to appeal to an African American audience.[6] Ira Aldridge, the first renowned actor of African descent, is among the performers. He will later popularize "Opossum Up a Gum Tree", the earliest known slave song.[7]
  • John Cromwell becomes the leading African American singing school master in Philadelphia; his students will include other prominent masters, such as Robert Johnson and Morris Brown, Jr.[8]

1821

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  • The Quaker Levi Coffin gives an early account of an ancestor of African American spirituals.[9]
  • The black African Grove theater, led by Henry Brown,[10] in Manhattan opens to the public, one of the earliest theaters to feature African American performers in full productions, also training the renowned Ira Aldridge.[6]
  • Lowell Mason publishes his first book of hymns, the Boston Handel and Haydn Society Collection of Church Music, which quickly becomes one of the most popular tunebooks of the era.[11][12][13][14]
  • The Army is reorganized, allowing musicians to be treated as privates in pay and allowances, and bands were officially allowed to form their own squad within each regiment.[15]

1822

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  • Thomas Hastings publishes his Dissertation on Musical Taste, the "first American treatise of its kind".[16]
  • John Cole forms an influential music publishing business with his son, located in Baltimore.[17]
  • English comedian Charles Matthews tours the United States, including a song in his act, "Possum up a Gum Tree", which he hears on his trip by African Americans at a theater in New York. His use of the song is the "first certain example of a white man borrowing (African American) material for a blackfaced act."[18]

1823

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  • Henry Rowley Bishop's Clari, or the Maid of Milan, with libretto by the American John Howard Payne, is premiered, both in London and New York. The melodrama becomes wildly popular into the 1870s, and one song, "Home! Sweet Home!", becomes one of the most popular of the 19th century.[19] It will be the most popular song on both sides of the American Civil War.[20]
  • Dancing has become such an "integral part of a gentleman's education it was incorporated into the curriculum at West Point".[21]
  • The first piece of sheet music with a lithographed cover appears; it is "The Soldier Tired".[22]
  • The first Italian opera introduced to the United States is Gioachino Rossini's The Barber of Seville, performed in New Orleans, but in French.[33]
  • Pierre Egan's Tom and Jerry, or Life in London is a hit play, presented at the African Grove Theatre, that establishing a common comic convention, that of the urban city slicker and a rural visitor.[23]
  • Giacomo Beltrami collects the oldest extant Native American flute, now in the collection of the Museo Civico di Scienze Naturali in Bergamo, Italy.[24]

1824

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Mid 1820s music trends
  • African American churches begin sponsoring concerts of sacred music in Eastern cities.[8]

1825

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  • The Park Theatre in New York City hosts a performance of The Barber of Seville by an opera led by Manuel García and aided by exptriate Lorenzo da Ponte.[27] The show was very successful, and helped establish a market for continental opera in the United States. Maria García, the show's female lead, became the first female star singer in New York.[28]
  • The American piano industry begins with the patenting of a new construction for the instrument by Alpheus Babcock of Boston, which used a metal frame rather than a wooden one.[29]
  • The Independent Band of New York becomes the then "first important independent fully-professional band" in the country.[30]
  • James Hill Hewitt writes the parlor song "The Minstrels Return from the War", which becomes the first internationally successful by an American songwriter",[31] and remains the most popular song until the advent of Stephen Foster.[32] The song's success establishes Hewitt as the first American "compose parlor songs and market them successfully".[27] "The Minstrels Return from the War" is the first song commonly perceived as truly American.[32]
  • The Forest Rose; Or, American Farmers by John Davies and Samuel Woodworth is probably the first opera with an African American female role in the country.[33]
  • The Army stops requiring officers to pay for the costs of forming a regimental band.[15]

1827

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  • The first black newspaper in the country, Freedom's Journal, is founded, containing, among other topics, announcements and advertisements for concerts and singing schools, and music editorials.[34]
  • New Orleans' Théâtre d'Orléans begins touring the major cities of the Northeast with non-English operas.[25]
  • Yale and Harvard University found the first collegiate bands in the United States.[30]
  • The seven-note "do-re-mi" system of musical notation is introduced, though it does not become common until after the Civil War.[35]

1828

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Cover to sheet music for "Jump Jim Crow", depicting Thomas D. Rice in his blackface costume.
  • The Allentown Band is founded. It will become the oldest American band in continuous existence.[30]
  • Elizabeth Austin, a famed English singer from London, begins traveling across the eastern half of the United States. She becomes a major singing sensation.[36]
  • Street vendor Henry Anderson, also known as The Hominy Man, becomes a local legend in Philadelphia for his "strong, resonant 'tenor robusto' and the fact that his were 'the most musical of all cries'."[37][38]
  • St. Thomas Episcopal Church in Philadelphia becomes the first black church in the country to purchase a pipe organ,[39] and the first to hire a black female organist, Ann Appo.[40]
  • Thomas D. Rice, an actor, creates a stage character called Jim Crow, based on a crippled African American stable groom's singing and dancing. Jim Crow became a stock character in blackface minstrel shows.[41] Rice publishes "Jump Jim Crow", a fantastically popular song whose status will endure for decades.[42]
Late 1820s music trends
  • The banjo spreads from African Americans to whites, with the first documentation coming from Joel Walker Sweeney in Virginia.[43] Sweeney will change the body of the banjo from the traditional gourd to a European drum shell.[44]
  • Showboats begin traveling along the Chattahoochee River, bringing the first professional entertainers to Columbus, Georgia and other towns along the river.[45]
  • Marches have become the most prominent part of military and other large band repertories throughout the United States. These are commonly characterized as using "fanfare-like melodies and a characteristic dotted rhythm motive.[46]

1829

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1830

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  • Approximate: Lowell Mason forms the earliest known formal singing school for children. The school is free.[49]
  • The first documented reference to a performance that is a "definitive account" of spirituals.[9]
  • General Winfield Scott heads a board to prepare a tactics manual, which provides a place for musicians in the regimental order of battle. The manual also contains the musical signals used by Army musicians.[50]

1831

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  • Anthony Philip Heinrich composes Pushmataha, a Venerable Chief of a Western Tribe of Indians; this has been called the influential composer's artistic peak, and is also when Heinrich became the first "American composer to celebrate the customs of North America's native peoples".[51]
  • American copyright law recognizes music "as a form of culture that required systemic protection".[52]
  • Elizabeth Austin, an English singing star, stars in the premier of Michael Rophino Lacy's Cinderella, or the Fairy and the Little Glass Slipper, which made her a household name across much of the United States.[53]
  • Joshua Leavitt, a Congregationalist minister (and later a prominent abolitionist publisher), publishes The Christian Lyre, the "first American tunebook to take the form of a modern hymnal, with music for every hymn (melody and bass only) and the multistanza hymns printed in full, under or beside the music. The Christian Lyre and this year's Spiritual Songs for Social Worship, compiled by Thomas Hastings and Lowell Mason, were widely adopted tunebooks in the 1830s New England Revivalism movement.[54]
  • Nat Turner's slave rebellion fails; the song "Steal Away", which may have been written by Turner himself, is sung during the rebellion, and it becomes one of the major songs of the spiritual tradition. Only much later does mainstream American discover that the song contains coded references to secret religious meetings.[55]
Early 1830s music trends
  • Quicksteps begin to replace marches as the most prominent music of the military and other large band repertory. This is, in part, spurred by the development of brass instruments, whose aptitude for playing melodies is reflected in the sprightly and flowing melodic style of quicksteps. Marches remain common in country dancing, as accompaniment for dances like the cotillion and the quadrille.[46]

1832

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  • Changes to Army regulations make bandsmen regular soldiers, required to serve in battle if needed, establishes a position for bandmasters, and limits the size of regimental bands.[50]

1833

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1834

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Mid 1830s music trends
  • The Boston Academy of Music moves from education and sacred song into the cultivation of instrumental music by recognized European masters.[62]
  • John Hill Hewitt and other composers of popular parlor songs begin adopting influences from Italian opera, bringing a "new source of grace and intensity, as well as a tone of accessible elevation.[63]

1835

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1836

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  • The Boston Billings and Holden Society publishes The Billings and Holden Collection of Ancient Psalmody, a collection of church songs presented in their "original character instead of in the 'improved' versions of Mason and his associates". The book is published for the benefit of the elderly, which may be an "early example of musical consideration for the benefit of 'senior citizens'".[70]
  • Music education is first introduced into the public school system of New York City.[71]
  • Lowell Mason's Manual of the Boston Academy of Music is published, becoming the most oft-used music instruction book of the era.[72]

1837

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Late 1830s music trends
  • Touring by European bands becomes commonplace across North America, as more inhabited areas have grown large enough to make performances commercially viable.[66]
  • American military bands and other ensembles adopt the "Turkish" or "Janissary" percussion instrumentation of triangle, bass drum, cymbal and tambourine.[73]
  • The banjo begins to be used as a solo instrument in minstrel shows, which will soon settle on the standard quartet of banjo, fiddle, tambourine and bones.[74]
  • Lowell Mason begins teaching singing, without pay, in Boston's public schools, becoming the first to teach music there.[3][49][75] The local school board had already authorized the teaching of music, but hadn't allocated any funds for the subject. Mason's volunteer teaching constitutes the beginning of music education in American public schools.[58] Later in the year, music is introduced to the public school system of Buffalo, New York.[58]
  • Chickering patents the first of several technical innovations that will make that firm the most important manufacturer of pianos in the country.[76]
  • The Shakers begin a revival, which produces a large body of songs that endure as part of their canon, including songs said to be received from the spirits of famous leaders, Native Americans and others.[77]
  • African American ensemble Francis Johnson's Orchestra becomes the first American groups to travel to Europe.[78]
  • The first sheet music with a full color illustrated front cover is published.[79]
 
Lowell Mason

1838

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  • Francis Johnson presents the country's first promenade concert in Philadelphia.[80]
  • Encouraged by the success of Lowell Mason's experiment in volunteer singing instruction, the Boston school board declares music a school subject and hires Mason as Superintendent of Music.[49] Mason is the first person in the country to serve in that position for a public school system.[81] This is the beginning of music education in public schools in the United States.[82]
  • The Marigny Theater opens in New Orleans to cater to free African American audiences, banning both whites and slaves, and producing light French comedies and musical shows.[6]
  • The Richmond Theater, the premier concert stage in the city, is renovated and renamed the Marshall Theater.[83]
  • Allen Dodworth patents horns worn over-the-shoulder to project the sound behind the performer. This is intended for use in military contexts, and leads to military bands becoming almost exclusively brass bands.[50]

1839

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  • The Rainer family emigrates to the United States, beginning a craze for a new style of "public popular music performance... based on the four-part glee".[27]
  • William Henry Harrison's presidential campaign becomes the first to use music and campaign songs as an integral part of its strategy.[84]
Early 1840s music trends
  • Brass bands spread across the United States, and are a well-established part of local musical life.[85]
  • Pianos have become an increasingly common household item, and are owned by most families that are capable of affording one.[86]
  • An African American dance technique using the heel of the foot without raising the rest of front of the foot dates back to this era; it will eventually become the basis for the stop-time ragtime dance.[87]

1840

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1841

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  • Justin Miner Holland becomes the first "professional black musician" to study at Oberlin College, one of very few colleges to accept African Americans prior to the Civil War.[88]
  • Lowell Mason's collection of Christian songs, Carmina Sacra, sells a record 500,000 copies between its release this year and 1858.[89]
  • Ludwig van Beethoven's Symphony No. 1 is performed for the first time in Boston, indicating a growing acceptance for the work of European composers, led by the likes of music critic John Sullivan Dwight[90]
  • William B. Bradbury, an organist and choir leader in a Baptist church in New York, publishes The Young Choir, a highly successful tunebook aimed at Sunday schools.[91] He will become one of the most popular publishers of church music of the era.[92]
  • The number of musicians in an Army band is increased from 10 to 12.[50]
  • The Mother Bethel A.M.E. Church in Pennsylvania becomes the first in the country to introduce choral singing.[39] The national conference of the Church passes a resolution to "strenuously oppose" the use of hymns with refrains, added to the standard pieces, which were introduced by African Americans to the texts.[93]
  • The first production of Norma by Vincenzo Bellini in the country, at the Chesnut Street Theatre in Philadelphia, adapted by Joseph Fry.[94]
  • Music education is introduced into the public school system of Chicago.[58]

1842

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Master Juba

1843

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1844

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Stephen Foster

1845

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  • "Wake, Lady Mine" is written, by Augusta Browne; it will become one of her most renowned songs, and will establish her career as the most prolific American female composer of the era.[119]
  • Henry Rowe Schoolcraft publishes Onéota, or Characteristics of the Red Race of America, one of the first publications to include a Native American song, specifically one called "Death Song" and collected from the Ojibwa. It is published without music.[123]
  • Justin Miner Holland, a freeborn African American, begins his composing career and opens a studio in Cleveland; he was, perhaps, the first black composer whose "African roots... played little or no role in his professional life".[88][124]
  • Music education is first introduced into the public school systems of Cincinnati, Ohio and Washington, D.C.[58][71]
  • The growing Anglo-Texan population declares independence from Mexico, leading to Tejano music becoming distinct from other regional styles of Mexican music as Tejano identity becomes more pronounced than Mexican among Texans of Spanish descent.[125]
  • Thomas Commuck, with Thomas Hastings, publishes Indian Melodies... Harmonized by Thomas Hastings, a collection of hymns which uses Native American names and other details in the lyrics, an unusual practice for the time.[126]
  • W. C. Peters and Son is founded, soon becoming the largest music publishing firm in the Midwest.[127]
  • William Henry Fry's Leonora is the first grand opera by an American-born composer to "receive wide-ranging publicity and reviews".[33]

1846

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Sheet music for Christy's Minstrels

1847

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  • Stephen Foster's "Oh! Susanna" is published; it becomes immensely successful around the world,[133] and is characteristic of the minstrel stage; it is "musically derived from the Anglo-American fiddle tune repertoire (and) adds an additional measure of rhythmic excitement and places greater emphasis on the refrain".[27]
  • German immigration to the United States begins to shift from religious refugees to political exiles, following a revolution in Germany.[134]
  • A collection of traditional church songs, Ancient Harmony Revival, becomes popular, providing momentum for a movement away from the modernized songs popularized by Lowell Mason and others.[135]
  • Army bands are increased in size from 12 to 16. Regulations also require bands to be mustered in a separate squad, a precedent that leads to the modern practice of setting the band apart from the unit entirely.[50]
Late 1840s music trends

1848

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1849

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Louis Moreau Gottschalk.
  • The ethnic music festival, Saengerfest, is first held around Cincinnati, Ohio and Louisville, Kentucky. Later known as the Cincinnati May Festival, it will become a major regional event.[106]
  • Stephen Foster writes "Nelly Was a Lady", the first American song to treat an African American woman as a lady worthy of respect.[147]
  • William Wells Brown' The Anti-Slavery Hope is a notable collection of most of the abolitionist songs in circulation at the time.[148]
  • A conflict between the supporters of a British and an American Shakespearean actor leads to the Astor Place Riots in New York City. Popular music historian Donald Clarke calls this a major turning point in American music history, marking the beginning of a split between highbrow and lowbrow entertainment and the beginning of specialized performances rather than pastiches and melodramas attempting to appeal to all consumers.[149]

References

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  • Abel, E. Lawrence (2000). Singing the New Nation: How Music Shaped the Confederacy, 1861–1865. Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books. ISBN 0-8117-0228-6.
  • Bird, Christiane (2001). The Da Capo Jazz and Blues Lover's Guide to the U.S.. Da Capo Press. ISBN 0-306-81034-4.
  • Mellonnee V. Burnim; Portia K. Maultsby, eds. (2005). African American Music: An Introduction. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-94137-7.
  • Birge, Edward Bailey (2007). History of Public School Music – In the United States. Oliver Ditson. ISBN 978-1-4067-5617-3.
  • Chase, Gilbert (2000). America's Music: From the Pilgrims to the Present. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0-252-00454-X.
  • Cornelius, Steven (2004). Music of the Civil War Era. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0-313-32081-0.
  • Crawford, Richard (2001). America's Musical Life: A History. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-04810-1.
  • Darden, Robert (1996). People Get Ready: A New History of Black Gospel Music. New York: Continuum International Publishing Group. ISBN 0-8264-1752-3.
  • Darrow, Alice-Ann; George N. Heller (Winter 1985). "Early Advocates of Music Education for the Hearing Impaired: William Wolcott Turner and David Ely Bartlett". Journal of Research in Music Education. 33 (4). MENC: The National Association for Music Education: 269–279. doi:10.2307/3345253. JSTOR 3345253. S2CID 145344175.
  • Elson, Louis Charles (1915). The History of American Music. Macmillan & Co.
  • Erbsen, Wayne (2003). Rural Roots of Bluegrass: Songs, Stories and History. Pacific, Missouri: Mel Bay Publications. ISBN 0-7866-7137-8.
  • Horowitz, Joseph (2005). Classical Music in America: A History of Its Rise and Fall. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-05717-8.
  • Hansen, Richard K. (2005). The American Wind Band: A Cultural History. GIA Publications. ISBN 1-57999-467-9.
  • Hester, Karlton E. (2004). Bigotry and the Afrocentric Jazz Evolution. Global Academic Publishing. ISBN 1-58684-228-5.
  • Klitz, Brian (June 1989). "Blacks and Pre-Jazz Instrumental Music in America". International Review of the Aesthetics and Sociology of Music. 20 (1). Croatian Musicological Society: 43–60. doi:10.2307/836550. JSTOR 836550.
  • Kirk, Elise Kuhl (2001). American Opera. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0-252-02623-3.
  • Koskoff, Ellen, ed. (2000). Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, Volume 3: The United States and Canada. Garland Publishing. ISBN 0-8240-4944-6.
  • Lankford, Jr., Ronald D. (2005). Folk Music USA: The Changing Voice of Protest. New York: Schirmer Trade Books. ISBN 0-8256-7300-3.
  • Malone, Bill C.; David Stricklin (2003). Southern Music/American Music. University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 0-8131-9055-X.
  • Miller, James (September 11, 1999). Flowers in the Dustbin: The Rise of Rock and Roll, 1947–1977. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-684-80873-0.
  • Peretti, Burton W. (2008). Lift Every Voice. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-7425-5811-3.
  • National Conference on Music of the Civil War Era (2004). Mark A. Snell; Bruce C. Kelley (eds.). Bugle Resounding: Music and Musicians of the Civil War Era. University of Missouri Press. ISBN 0-8262-1538-6.
  • John Shepherd; David Horn; Dave Laing; Paul Oliver; Peter Wicke, eds. (2003). Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World, Volume 1: Media, Industry and Society. London: Continuum. ISBN 0-8264-6321-5.
  • Southern, Eileen (1997). Music of Black Americans. New York: W.W. Norton & Co. ISBN 0-393-03843-2.
  • Tawa, Nicholas E. (1980). Sweet Songs for Gentle Americans: The Parlor Song in America, 1790–1860. Popular Press. ISBN 0-87972-130-8.
  • Ukpokodu, Peter (May 2000). "African American Males in Dance, Music, Theater, and Film". Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 569 (The African American Male in American Life and Thought): 71–85. doi:10.1177/0002716200569001006.
  • "U.S. Army Bands in History". U.S. Army Bands. Retrieved July 20, 2008.
  • Wondrich, David (2003). Stomp and Swerve: American Music Gets Hot, 1843–1924. Chicago Review Press. ISBN 1-55652-496-X.

Notes

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  1. ^ Crawford, pg. 314
  2. ^ Chase, pg. 270
  3. ^ a b Blum, Stephen. "Sources, Scholarship and Historiography" in the Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, pgs. 21–37
  4. ^ Elson, pg. 44
  5. ^ Tawa, pg. 18
  6. ^ a b c d Riis, Thomas L. "Musical Theater". The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 614–623.
  7. ^ Crawford, pg. 21
  8. ^ a b Southern, pg. 105
  9. ^ a b Darden, pg. 67
  10. ^ Southern, pg. 116
  11. ^ Crawford, pg. 142
  12. ^ Burk, Meierhoff and Phillips, pg. 129
  13. ^ Chase, pg. 132
  14. ^ Horowitz, pg. 29 gives the year as 1822
  15. ^ a b U.S. Army Bands
  16. ^ Crawford, pg. 151
  17. ^ Abel, pg. 255
  18. ^ Chase, pg. 233, quoted from Toll, Robert C. Blacking Up. p. 27.
  19. ^ Crawford, pgs. 177–178
  20. ^ Clarke, pg. 19
  21. ^ Abel, pg. 171
  22. ^ Abel, pg. 257
  23. ^ Clarke, pg.20
  24. ^ Clint Goss (2011). "The Beltrami Flute". Retrieved April 16, 2011.
  25. ^ a b c Crawford, pg. 191
  26. ^ Kirk, pg. 385
  27. ^ a b c d e f g Cockrell, Dale and Andrew M. Zinck, "Popular Music of the Parlor and Stage", pgs. 179–201, in the Garland Encyclopedia of World Music
  28. ^ Crawford, pg. 180
  29. ^ Crawford, pg. 234
  30. ^ a b c Hansen, pg. 215
  31. ^ Abel, pg. 65
  32. ^ a b Clarke, pg. 14
  33. ^ a b Kirk, pg. 386
  34. ^ Southern, pgs. 101–102
  35. ^ Malone and Stricklin, pg. 8
  36. ^ Crawford, pg. 185
  37. ^ Southern, pg. 125
  38. ^ Hester, pg. 48
  39. ^ a b Southern, pg. 128
  40. ^ Southern, pg. 603
  41. ^ Crawford, pg. 201
  42. ^ Peretti, pg. 22
  43. ^ Crawford, pg. 205
  44. ^ a b Wondrich, pg. 22
  45. ^ Abel, pg. 244
  46. ^ a b Crawford, pg. 277
  47. ^ a b Chase, pg. 233
  48. ^ Birge, pg. 18
  49. ^ a b c d Crawford, pg. 147
  50. ^ a b c d e f g U.S. Army Bands
  51. ^ Crawford, pg. 317
  52. ^ Sanjek, David and Will Straw, "The Music Industry", pgs. 256–267, in the Garland Encyclopedia of World Music
  53. ^ Crawford, pg. 185–186
  54. ^ Crawford, pg. 169
  55. ^ Darden, pgs. 81–82
  56. ^ a b Loza, Steven. "Hispanic California". The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 734–753.
  57. ^ Crawford, pg. 181
  58. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Colwell, Richard; James W. Pruett; Pamela Bristah. "Education". New Grove Dictionary of Music. pp. 11–21.
  59. ^ Birge, pgs. 25–26
  60. ^ a b Crawford, pg. 18
  61. ^ Elson, pg. 102
  62. ^ Crawford, pgs. 302–303
  63. ^ Crawford, pgs. 242–243
  64. ^ Chase, pg. 244
  65. ^ Burk, Meierhoff and Phillips, pg. 144
  66. ^ a b c Preston, Katherine K.; Susan Key; Judith Tick; Frank J. Cipolla; Raoul F. Camus. "Snapshot: Four Views of Music in the United States". The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 554–569.
  67. ^ Chase, pg. 210
  68. ^ a b Crawford, pg. 165
  69. ^ Horn, David. "Oliver Ditson and Company". The Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music. pp. 584–585.
  70. ^ Chase, pg. 134; all single quotes in original; Chase quotes from the Collection that the songs "must be republished as originally written, or the elderly and middle-aged must be deprived of the satisfaction and delight they have heretofore experienced."
  71. ^ a b c d e Birge, pg. 65, citing Francis M. Dickey's The Early History of Public School Music in the United States
  72. ^ Tawa, pg. 55
  73. ^ Crawford, pgs. 272–273
  74. ^ Klitz, pg. 48
  75. ^ Burk, Meierhoff and Phillips, pg. 168
  76. ^ Elson, pg. 45
  77. ^ Chase, pg. 208
  78. ^ Laing, Dave; John Shepherd. "Tour". The Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 567–568.
  79. ^ Horn, David; David Sanjek. "Sheet Music". The Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music. pp. 599–605.
  80. ^ Southern, pg. 109
  81. ^ Chase, pg. 133
  82. ^ Birge, pg. 1
  83. ^ Abel, pg. 239
  84. ^ Cornelius, Steven, Charlotte J. Frisbie and John Shepherd, "Snapshot: Four Views of Music, Government, and Politics", pgs. 304–319, in the Garland Encyclopedia of World Music
  85. ^ Abel, pg. 133
  86. ^ Abel, pg. 139
  87. ^ Chase, pg. 414, citing Nathan, Hans (1887). "Early Banjo Tunes and American Syncopation". The Complete American Banjo School. Philadelphia.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  88. ^ a b Wright, Jacqueline R. B. "Concert Music". The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 603–613.
  89. ^ Chase, pg. 131
  90. ^ Crawford, pg. 302
  91. ^ Crawford, pg. 152
  92. ^ Chase, pg. 143
  93. ^ Southern, pg. 180
  94. ^ Chase, pg. 305
  95. ^ Southern, pg. 132
  96. ^ Chase, pg. 237
  97. ^ a b Crawford, pg. 212
  98. ^ Crawford, pgs. 255–257
  99. ^ Chase, pg. 162
  100. ^ Southern, pg. 94
  101. ^ Upkopodu, pg.
  102. ^ Darden, pg. 121
  103. ^ Southern, pg. 99
  104. ^ Crawford, pg. 304
  105. ^ Burk, Meierhoff and Phillips, pg. 165
  106. ^ a b c d Kearns, Williams. "Overview of Music in the United States". The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 519–553.
  107. ^ Chase, pg. 202
  108. ^ a b c Rycenga, Jennifer, Denise A. Seachrist and Elaine Keillor, "Snapshot: Three Views of Music and Religion", pgs. 129–139, in the Garland Encyclopedia of World Music
  109. ^ Abel, pg. 140
  110. ^ Crawford, pg. 203
  111. ^ Darden, pg. 122
  112. ^ Southern, pg. 92
  113. ^ Maultsby, Portia K.; Mellonee V. Burnin; Susan Oehler. "Overview". The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 572–591.
  114. ^ Goertzen, Christopher. "English and Scottish Music". The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 831–841.
  115. ^ Erbsen, pg. 16
  116. ^ Southern, pg. 62
  117. ^ Burnim and Maultsby, pg. 9
  118. ^ Chase, pg. 174
  119. ^ a b Chase, pg. 160, cites Tick, Judith. American Woman Composers Before 1870. p. 146.
  120. ^ Crawford, pg. 238
  121. ^ Chase, pg. 251
  122. ^ Clarke, pg. 22
  123. ^ Crawford, pg. 391
  124. ^ Crawford, pg. 428
  125. ^ Reyna, José R. "Tejano Music". The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 770–782.
  126. ^ Chase, pg. 144
  127. ^ Snell and Kelley, pg. 31
  128. ^ Erbsen, pg. 21
  129. ^ a b Chase, pg. 182
  130. ^ Crawford, pg. 425
  131. ^ Southern, pg. 16
  132. ^ Crawford, pg. 298
  133. ^ Chase, pg. 252
  134. ^ Levy, Mark. "Central European Music". The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 884–903.
  135. ^ Chase, pg. 135
  136. ^ Abel, pg. 248
  137. ^ Southern, pg. 129
  138. ^ Burk, Meierhoff and Phillips, pg. 177
  139. ^ Darden, pg. 45
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  146. ^ Southern, pg. 267
  147. ^ Snell and Kelley, pg. 45
  148. ^ Southern, pg. 141
  149. ^ Clarke, pg. 17, Clarke notes that the "British thespian was seen to represent an aristocratic elitism."