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Takrur

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Takrur, Tekrur or Tekrour (c. 500 – c. 1456) was a state based in the Senegal River valley in modern day Mauritania and Northern Senegal, Northwestern Africa, which was at its height in the 10th and 11th centuries, roughly parallel to the Ghana Empire. It lasted in some form into the 18th century.

Takrur
500–1456
CapitalTumbere Jiinge (Dya'ogo, Tonjon, Manna dynasties), Taaga (Laam Taga), Hoorewendu (Laam Termess)
Common languagesSerer[1][2] Fula, Arabic
Religion
Serer religion[1][3]
Islam (Official)
Demonym(s)Takruri
GovernmentMonarchy
• 1030s
War Jabi
Historical eraMiddle Ages
• Established
500
• Establishment of Manna dynasty by Mamadu Sumaare
c. 826
• Adoption of Islam by War Jabi
1030s
• Fula Laam Termess dynasty come to power
1122
• Conquered and vassalized by Mali Empire
1285
• Conquered by Jolof Empire
1456
 Succeeded by
Jolof Empire
Denianke Kingdom

History

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Origin

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See also: Lamane and Serer history

There are a number of conflicting theories about the origin of the Kingdom of Takrur. The formation of the state may have taken place as an influx of Fulani from the east settled in the Senegal valley.[4][5][6]: 56  John Donnelly Fage suggests that Takrur was formed through the interaction of Berbers from the Sahara and "Negro agricultural peoples" who were "essentially Serer".[7] The Serer language and religion (A ƭat Roog) were prevalent and made up an important part of the Kingdom's culture.[1][2][3] The outsiders may, however, have been Soninke rather than Berber, and the native population may have already spoken Fula.[8] Regardless, the region was an ethnic melting pot, although the Fula would eventually subsume much of the Serer, Wolof, Soninke, Malinke, and Berber elements.[6]: 55 

Early Dynasties

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The founding dynasty was called Dya'ogo. Traditional historians disagree on their origin and ethnic background (assuming a relationship can be drawn at all with ethnic labels as understood today). They were blacksmith-kings, and supposedly introduced iron-working and ore extraction to the region.[6]: 27  They were succeeded by the Serer Tonjon dynasty.[6]: 65, 70  Although Kane placed the "Tonjon" (whom he assigned to the Serer) after the Manna dynasty,[6]: 65, 70  most historians including Bruno Chavane, Charles Becker, Victor Martin, Henry Gravrand, Willie F. Page, John D. Fage, Thomas Streissguth, Godfrey Mwakikagile, etc., placed "the Serer exodus" from Takrur in the 11th century following their persecution by the Muslims–when Islam and Sharia was introduced to the Kingdom by the Manna.[9][10][11][12][13]

The Serer lamanic class, whose role also included the safeguarding of Serer spirituality, are believed to have been at the forefront of resisting Islamization, partly to preserve their religion, but also their power and wealth as landowners. It was common for early Arab writers such as Al Bakri to refer to "non-believers" of Islam in their works as lamlam, lemlem, or damdam which scholars like Ibrahima Thiaw and Abdoulaye Bara Diop believe to be a corruption of the Serer title lamaan.[9] [14][15]

Manna

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The Soninke Sumaare clan under Mamadu Sumaare, originally from Wagadu or the Kingdom of Diarra, conquered Takrur in 826, establishing the Manna dynasty.[6]: 64 [8]

Takrur was first mentioned in Arab sources in the 10th century.[16] The king Rabis may be the Rai bin Rai cited as an ally of the Almoravids and king of the Sudan who troops fought in al-Andalus.[6]: 65  In 1035 king War Jabi introduced Sharia law, becoming the first ruler to officially adopt Islamic orthodoxy in the Sahel.[17] In 1056 his son Laba fought alongside Yahya ibn Umar al-Lamtuni at the battle of Tabfarilla.[6]: 65 

During this period Takrur held a dominant position in regional trade, controlling a series of trading posts and cities linking the salt mines of Awlil on the coast north of the mouth of the Senegal to the interior.[18]

Takrur is credited as winning the Battle of Sagrajas, 1086, in Al-Andalus which was crucial to halting the Reconquista.[19]

The last Manna king, Cengaan Sumaare, is remembered as a bloodthirsty tyrant. Despite Takrur's history of alliance with the Almoravids, he was overthrown by Abu Bakr ibn Umar, who founded the Berber Laam Taga dynasty in 1082. They only lasted 40 years, however, before the Fula Laam Termess defeated them in 1122. Under this new dynasty, the ethnic makeaup of Futa Toro became definitively Fula.[6]: 64–6  During the 13th century, a civil war broke out between the Muslim Fula and the Serer, who followed their traditional religion. Rather than convert, they migrated southwest first to the Ferlo Desert and then to Siin and Saloum.[17][6]: 76 

Vassalage and Decline

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The fall of Ghana precipitated an era of political change in the region. The Susu carved out the sizeable, though short-lived, empire that made Takrur a vassal. They were followed by the Mali Empire, which did the same.[6]: 72 

Tekrur was conquered by the Jolof emperor Tyukuli N'Diklam in the 15th century, who split the region between multiple farba (governors).[20][6]: 72  By 1506, however, the Burba's authority was weakening, and the farba fell to fighting amongst themselves.[6]: 67  Koli Tengella, a Fula warlord native to Takrur but coming from Futa Jallon, conquered the area in 1521 and set up the Denanke dynasty. This would last until 1776 when the Fouta Revolution, led by Muslim clerics, took over the kingdom and the house of Denanke was brought down.[21]

Timeline

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Dates and sequencing from Oumar Kane. Much of it is sourced from oral histories, and details may be disputed by other sources or authors.[6]: 67 

Time Events
508-720 Dya-ogo dynasty
720-826 Tonjon dynasty
826-1082 Soninke Manna dynasty
1086 Battle of Sagrajas
1082-1122 Berber Laam Taaga dynasty
1122-1456 Laam Termess dynasty, the first Fula rulers of Takrur
1456-1506 Jolof rule of Takrur
1506-1526 Civil war between farbas
1520-1 Invasion by Koli Tenguella
1526 Koli Tenguella establishes firm control over Takrur, founds the Denanke Kingdom

Economy

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Located in present-day Senegal and Mauritania, it was a trading centre, where gold from the Bambuk region,[22]: 44  salt from the Awlil,[23] and Sahel grain were exchanged for wool, copper, beads, and jewelry.[16] The domestication of the cotton tree and the manufacture of cotton cloth were first reported in Takrur,[22]: 179  and the kingdom's cloth was among its most renowned exports.[16]

Territory

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At the height of its power, Takrur controlled the north bank of the Senegal as far as the Tagant plateau and Aleg.[6]: 27  The Gorgol river valley was the heartland of the kingdom, and was the site of the Dya'ogo capital Tumbere Jiinge.[6]: 38  They also controlled, or at least had significant influence over, the area downstream that would become Waalo.[24]: 39 

Takrur as a toponym

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Takruri was a term, like Bilad-ul-Sudan, that was used to refer to all people of West African ancestry,[25][26] and is still in use as such in the Middle East, with some corruption, as in Takruni, pl. Takarna تكروني in Saudi Arabia, and in Ethiopia and Eritrea, in the form Tukrir. The district of Bulaq Al-Dakrur بولاق الدكرور in Cairo is named after an ascetic from West Africa. In the Middle East Toucouleurs are still referred to as Tukrir to this day.[27]

Takrur was the term used by the region's inhabitants up until the 15th century. During the 16th and 17th centuries, however, it was gradually replaced by Futa Toro.[24]: 29 

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ a b c Charles Becker et Victor Martin, « Rites de sépultures préislamiques au Sénégal et vestiges protohistoriques », Archives Suisses d'Anthropologie Générale, Imprimerie du Journal de Genève, Genève, 1982, tome 46, no 2, p. 261-293
  2. ^ a b Trimingham, John Spencer, A History of Islam in West Africa, pp 174, 176 & 234, Oxford University Press, USA (1970)
  3. ^ a b Gravrand, "Pangool", pp 9, 20-77
  4. ^ Hrbek, I. (1992). General History of Africa volume 3: Africa from the 7th to the 11th Century: Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century v. 3 (Unesco General History of Africa (abridged)). James Carey. p. 67. ISBN 978-0852550939.
  5. ^ Creevey, Lucy (August 1996). "Islam, Women and the Role of the State in Senegal". Journal of Religion in Africa. 26 (3): 268–307. doi:10.1163/157006696x00299. JSTOR 1581646.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Kane, Oumar (2004). La première hégémonie peule. Le Fuuta Tooro de Koli Teηella à Almaami Abdul. Paris: Karthala. Retrieved 12 July 2023.
  7. ^ Fage, John Donnelly (1997). "Upper and Lower Guinea". In Roland Oliver (ed.). The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521209816.
  8. ^ a b Brooks, George E. (August 1985). "WESTERN AFRICA TO c1860 A.D. A PROVISIONAL HISTORICAL SCHW BASED ON CLIMATE PERIODS". Indiana University African Studies Program: 36.
  9. ^ a b Chavane, Bruno A., "Villages de l’ancien Tekrour", Vol. 2, Hommes et sociétés. Archéologies africaines, KARTHALA Editions (1985), p. 38, ISBN 2-86537-143-3
  10. ^ Page, Willie F., "Encyclopedia of African history and culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500)." Vol.2, Facts on File (2001), pp. 209, 676, ISBN 0-8160-4472-4
  11. ^ Streissguth, Thomas, "Senegal in Pictures, Visual Geography." Second Series, Twenty-First Century Books (2009), p. 23, ISBN 1-57505-951-7
  12. ^ Oliver, Roland Anthony; Fage, J. D., "Journal of African history", Volume 10, Cambridge University Press (1969), p. 367
  13. ^ Mwakikagile, Godfrey, "Ethnic Diversity and Integration in The Gambia: The Land, The People and The Culture," (2010), p. 11, ISBN 9987-9322-2-3
  14. ^ Thiaw, Ibrahima, "From the Senegal River to Siin: The Archaeology of Sereer Migrations in North-Western Senegambia." p. 107 [in] "Migration and Membership Regimes in Global and Historical Perspective: An Introduction Studies in Global Migration History." Contributors: Bosma, Ulbe; Kessler, Gijs; & Lucassen, Leo. BRILL (2013), ISBN 9004251154
  15. ^ Diop, Abdoulaye Bara, "Le tenure foncière en milieu rural Wolof (Sénégal): Historique et actualité." Notes Africaines, no. 118, (April 1968), IFAN, Dakar, pp. 48–52
  16. ^ a b c Davis, R. Hunt (ed.). Encyclopedia Of African History And Culture, Vol. 2 (E-book ed.). The Learning Source. p. 129. Retrieved 18 May 2023.
  17. ^ a b Colvin, Lucie Gallistel, Historical dictionary of Senegal, Scare Crow Press Inc. (1981), p. 18, ISBN 0-8108-1369-6
  18. ^ Gomez, Michael (2018). African dominion : a new history of empire in early and medieval West Africa. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. p. 37. ISBN 9780691177427.
  19. ^ Khallikan, Ibn (1868). Ibn Khallikan's Biographical Dictionary. pp. 455, 456.
  20. ^ Leyti, Oumar Ndiaye. Le Djoloff et ses Bourba. Nouvelles Editions Africaines, 1981. ISBN 2-7236-0817-4
  21. ^ Ogot, Bethwell A. General history of Africa: Africa from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century. University of California Press, 1999, ISBN 0-520-06700-2, p 146 [1]
  22. ^ a b Levtzion, Nehemia (1973). Ancient Ghana and Mali. New York: Methuen & Co Ltd. ISBN 0841904316.
  23. ^ Shillington, Kevin (2012). History of Africa. London: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 94. ISBN 9780230308473.
  24. ^ a b Boulegue, Jean (2013). Les royaumes wolof dans l'espace sénégambien (XIIIe-XVIIIe siècle) (in French). Paris: Karthala Editions.
  25. ^ 'Umar Al-Naqar (1969). "Takrur the History of a Name". The Journal of African History. 10 (3): 365–374. doi:10.1017/s002185370003632x. JSTOR 179671.
  26. ^ Ibn Khalikan, op. cit. vi, 14.
  27. ^ Smidt 2010, p. 998.

Sources

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  • J. F. Ade Ajayi, Michael Crowder (eds.). History of West Africa. Columbia University (1972) ISBN 0-231-03628-0
  • J. Hunwick. "Takrur", Encyclopaedia of Islam, Leiden 2000, X, 142–3.
  • Mary Antin, Nehemia Levtzion. Medieval West Africa Before 1400: Ghana, Takrur, Gao (Songhay) and Mali. Translated by Nehemia Levtzion. J. F. Hopkins: Contributor. Markus Wiener Publishing, New Jersey (1998). ISBN 1-55876-165-9
  • J. D. Fage (ed.). The Cambridge History of Africa, vol. II, Cambridge University Press (1978), 675–7.
  • H. T. Norris. "The Wind of Change in the Western Sahara". The Geographical Journal, Vol. 130, No. 1 (Mar., 1964), pp. 1–14
  • D.W. Phillipson. African Archaeology, Cambridge University Press (Revised Edition 2005). ISBN 978-0-521-83236-6
  • Leyti, Oumar Ndiaye. Le Djoloff et ses Bourba. Nouvelles Editions Africaines, 1981. ISBN 2-7236-0817-4
  • Ogot, Bethwell A. General history of Africa: Africa from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century. University of California Press, 1999, ISBN 0-520-06700-2, p 146.
  • Oliver, Roland. The Cambridge history of Africa: From c. 1600 to c. 1790. Cambridge University Press, 1982. ISBN 0-521-20981-1, p484
  • Smidt, Wolbert (2010). "Tukrir". In Siegbert Uhlig, Alessandro Bausi (ed.). Encyclopedia Aethiopica. Vol. 4. Harrassowitz. pp. 998–1000. ISBN 9783447062466.

Further reading

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  • McIntosh, Roderick J.; McIntosh, Susan Keech; Bocoum, Hamady (2016). The Search for Takrur: Archaeological Excavations and Reconnaissance Along the Middle Senegal Valley. The Yale Peabody Museum.
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