Mudumalai National Park

(Redirected from Mudumalai Tiger Reserve)

Mudumalai National Park is a national park in the Nilgiri Mountains in Tamil Nadu in southern India. It covers 321 km2 (124 sq mi) at an elevation range of 850–1,250 m (2,790–4,100 ft) in the Nilgiri District and shares boundaries with the states of Karnataka and Kerala. A part of this area has been protected since 1940. The national park has been part of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve since 1986 and was declared a tiger reserve together with a buffer zone of 367.59 km2 (141.93 sq mi) in 2007. It receives an annual rainfall of about 1,420 mm (56 in) and harbours tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests with 498 plant species, at least 266 bird species, 18 carnivore and 10 herbivore species. It is drained by the Moyar River and several tributaries, which harbour 38 fish species.

Mudumalai National Park
Mudumalai Tiger Reserve
Bengal tiger in Mudumalai National Park
Map showing the location of Mudumalai National Park
Map showing the location of Mudumalai National Park
Map showing the location of Mudumalai National Park
Map showing the location of Mudumalai National Park
LocationNilgiri District, Tamil Nadu, India
Nearest cityGudalur, Nilgiris
Coordinates11°36′N 76°30′E / 11.6°N 76.5°E / 11.6; 76.5
Area321 km2 (124 sq mi)
Elevation850–1,250 m (2,790–4,100 ft)
Established1940 (1940)
Governing bodyTamil Nadu Forest Department
Websitehttps://www.forests.tn.gov.in/

Traffic on three public roads passing through the national park has caused significant roadkills of mammals, reptiles and amphibians. The park's northern part has been affected by several wildfires since 1999.

History

edit

The word Mudumalai is a Tamil word with முது 'mutu' meaning old, ancient, original; and முதுகாடு 'mudhukadu' meaning ancient forest.[1] The word மலை 'malai' means hill or mountain.[2] The name 'Mudumalai forest' was already in use when the British Government rented the forest in 1857 for logging purposes from the Raja of Neelambur.[3] In 1914, large forest tracts on the Sigur Plateau were declared as reserve forest for systematic logging. An area of about 60 km2 (23 sq mi) was established as Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary in 1940.[4] The sanctuary was enlarged in 1977 and incorporated into Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve in 1986.[4] It was declared as a Tiger Reserve under Project Tiger in April 2007 and notified as 'Critical Tiger Habitat' in December 2007. At the time, 1947 people lived in 28 hamlets inside the reserve; they kept about 1,060 cattle. In 2010, it was proposed to resettle them.[5] This notification was criticised by activists and conservationists as having been intransparent and undemocratic.[6]

In 2010, the National Tiger Conservation Authority approved the release of funds to Mudumalai Tiger Reserve in the frame of Project Tiger.[7] In 2020, Project Tiger has been extended until 2021 with funding of 114.1 million borne by the Government of India and the Government of Tamil Nadu.[8]

Geography

edit
 
Mudumalai National Park and vicinity
 
Moyar River waterfall

Mudumalai National Park covers 321 km2 (124 sq mi) in the eastern hills of the Western Ghats at an elevation range of 850–1,250 m (2,790–4,100 ft); it is bordered in the west by Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary, in the north by Bandipur National Park and in the east by Sigur Reserve Forest.[4] In the south, it is bordered by Singara Reserve Forest.[9] The Moyar River enters the national park in the south and is joined by five tributaries.[10] Together they drain this area, and several artificial waterholes provide drinking water for wildlife during dry seasons.[9] The original national park area together with a surrounding buffer zone of 367.59 km2 (141.93 sq mi) was designated as the Mudumalai Tiger Reserve.[11][12]

The elevation range of 250–1,200 m (820–3,940 ft) in the Western Ghats is characterised by evergreen forest with dipterocarp species prevailing.[13] Its undulating hills consist mostly of hornblendite and biotite gneiss with black sandy loam; red heavy loam prevails in the southern part.[14] It is part of the ecoregion South Western Ghats moist deciduous forests.[15] Mudumalai National Park and the adjacent Sigur Reserve Forest form an important wildlife corridor within the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve and provide the highest landscape connectivity for the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) population in the region.[16]

Climate

edit

Mudumalai National Park receives about 1,420 mm (56 in) rainfall annually, most of it during the southwest monsoon season from June to September. The temperature drops during the cool season from December to January, but rises during April to June, which are the hottest months.[14] Annual precipitation ranges from 1,100 mm (43 in) in the south and west to 600 mm (24 in) in the east.[17]

Flora

edit
 
Forest in Mudumalai National Park

Mudumalai National Park harbours tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests.[15] The floral diversity comprises 498 plant species including 154 tree, 77 shrub, 214 herb and 53 vine species.[18] Teak (Tectona grandis) and axlewood (Anogeissus latifolia) are the dominant tree species with a density of more than 105 trees/ha (42 trees/acre).[19] Prominent tree species include flame-of-the-forest (Butea monosperma), Indian laurel (Terminalia elliptica), kusum tree (Schleichera oleosa), weaver's beam tree (Schrebera swietenioides), Malabar kino tree (Pterocarpus marsupium), Indian rosewood (Dalbergia latifolia), Malabar plum (Syzygium cumini), silk-cotton tree (Bombax ceiba) and Indian beech (Millettia pinnata); moist deciduous forest is interspersed with giant thorny bamboo (Bambusa bambos). Mango (Mangifera indica) and persimmon (Diospyros) grow along river courses. Climbers include orange climber (Zanthoxylum asiaticum), Wattakaka volubilis, frangipani vine (Chonemorpha fragrans), trellis-vine (Pergularia daemia), purple morning glory (Argyreia cuneata), striped cucumber (Diplocyclos palmatus) and several jasmine species.[14] Ceylon satinwood (Chloroxylon swietenia), red cedar (Erythroxylum monogynum) and catechu (Senegalia catechu) are the dominant plants in shrubland patches.[20]

Lantana camara is an invasive species that negatively affects the dispersal of the native Indian gooseberry (Phyllanthus emblica) and Kydia calycina, but does not affect growth and dispersal of other shrubs.[21] A study on nesting behaviour of birds revealed that red-vented bulbul (Pycnonotus cafer) and red-whiskered bulbul (P. jocosus) prefer its top canopy level for building nests in spring.[22]

An exceptionally large arjun tree (Terminalia arjuna) with a height of 32 m (105 ft) and a girth of 8.45 m (27.7 ft) was detected in the Moyar River valley in 2019; it was used by white-rumped vulture (Gyps bengalensis), brown fish owl (Ketupa zeylonensis), spot-bellied eagle-owl (Bubo nipalensis), crested honey buzzard (Pernis ptilorhynchus), changeable hawk-eagle (Nisaetus cirrhatus) and shikra (Accipiter badius) for roosting.[23]

Fauna

edit

During the major flowering season, 394 nests of the giant honey bee (Apis dorsata) were detected in the park between January and June 2007; bee colonies comprised an average of 19 nests, mostly built in large trees.[24]

Mammals

edit
 
Leopard in Masinagudi

A survey carried out between November 2008 and February 2009 revealed that about 29 Indian leopards (Panthera pardus fusca) and 19 Bengal tigers (P. tigris tigris) lived in the park's core area of 107 km2 (41 sq mi).[25] As of 2018, the tiger population in the wider Mudumalai Tiger Reserve was estimated to comprise 103 resident individuals.[12] Jungle cat (Felis chaus), rusty-spotted cat (Prionailurus rubiginosus) and leopard cat (P. bengalensis) were recorded during camera trap surveys in 2010–2011 and 2018.[26][12] Two dhole (Cuon alpinus) packs were monitored during 1989–1993 and had home ranges of 83.3 and 54.2 km2 (32.2 and 20.9 sq mi); packs comprised between four and 25 individuals during this period.[27] Golden jackal (Canis aureus), and Nilgiri marten (Martes gwatkinsii) were also recorded in 2018.[12]

Scat of sloth bear (Melursus ursinus) collected along forest roads and animal trails contained remains of 18 plant species with golden shower (Cassia fistula), Indian plum (Zizyphus mauritiana) and clammy cherry (Cordia obliqua) forming the bulk of its diet apart from fungus-growing termites (Odontotermes), fire ants and honey bees.[28] Small Indian civet (Viverricula indica), Asian palm civet (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus) and brown palm civet (P. jerdoni) live in both deciduous and semi-evergreen forest patches; ruddy mongoose (Urva smithii) lives foremost in deciduous forest, whereas stripe-necked mongoose (U. vitticollis) frequents riverine areas, and Indian grey mongoose U. edwardsii open habitats.[29] The mongooses forage foremost for pill millipedes, dung beetles, fruits, small rodents, birds and reptiles.[30] Smooth-coated otter (Lutrogale perspicillata) groups were observed along the Moyar River in 2010 and 2011.[29] Their habitat preference was studied between 2015 and 2017; the groups preferred rocky areas near fast flowing water with loose sand and little vegetation cover.[31]

 
Asian elephant family

The Asian elephant is the largest mammal in the park with an estimated 536–1,001 individuals in 25 herds in 2000.[32] Herds comprise up to 22 individuals. The gaur (Bos gaurus) is the largest ungulate in the park, with herds of up to 42 individuals that frequent foremost grasslands in the vicinity of water sources.[33] The sambar deer (Cervus unicolor) forms smaller groups of up to five individuals, but also congregates in groups of up to 45 individuals in the wet season. The chital (Axis axis) forms large groups of at least 35 individuals, with some herds increasing to more than 100 members in the wet season.[34] Chital, Indian spotted chevrotain (Moschiola indica) and Indian muntjac (Muntiacus muntjak) have been recorded eating fallen fruit of the Indian gooseberry in a forest monitoring plot; they are therefore considered to be the primary seed dispersers in the park.[35] Present are also four-horned antelope (Tetracerus quadricornis), blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra), wild boar (Sus scrofa), Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata) and Indian crested porcupine (Hystrix indica).[12]

Indian giant squirrel

Four bonnet macaque (Macaca radiata) troops were studied in 1997, which ranged in size from 28 to 35 members and lived in sympatry with gray langur (Semnopithecus entellus) troops.[36] A troop in the Moyar River valley foraged on leaves, flowers and fruits of several tree and shrub species including tamarind (Tamarindus indica), banyan fig (Ficus benghalensis), wild jujube (Ziziphus oenoplia), neem (Azadirachta indica), kaayam (Memecylon edule) and indigoberry (Randia malabarica), but also consumed herbs, crickets and grasshoppers.[37] The range of the Indian giant squirrel (Ratufa indica) is continuous in the national park's moist deciduous forest; in the drier eastern part, it inhabits foremost riverine habitat with contiguous canopy. It builds nests in trees with a mean canopy height of 10.6 m (35 ft) and feeds on 25 plant species including teak, Indian laurel and Grewia tiliifolia.[38] The Indian giant flying squirrel (Petaurista philippensis) inhabits foremost moist deciduous forest with old trees of a mean 12.9 m (42 ft) height, a mean density of 499 trees/ha (202 trees/acre) and a canopy height of at least 6.86 m (22.5 ft).[39]

In 2013, a painted bat (Kerivoula picta) was sighted in the eastern part of the tiger reserve.[40]

Birds

edit
Crested honey buzzard
Indian pond heron in the buffer zone

Birds observed from 1994 to 1996 comprised 266 species; the 213 resident ones include Malabar grey hornbill (Ocyceros griseus), Indian grey hornbill (O. birostris), Indian peafowl (Pavo cristatus), Bonelli's eagle (Aquila fasciata), crested serpent eagle (Spilornis cheela), black eagle (Ictinaetus malaiensis), besra (Accipiter virgatus) and crested goshawk (A. trivirgatus), white-rumped shama (Copsychus malabaricus), Indian roller (Coracias benghalensis), greater flameback (Chrysocolaptes guttacristatus) and white-naped woodpecker (C. festivus), black-rumped flameback (Dinopium benghalense), white-bellied woodpecker (Dryocopus javensis), heart-spotted woodpecker (Hemicircus canente), rufous woodpecker (Micropternus brachyurus), greater racket-tailed drongo (Dicrurus paradiseus), grey-bellied cuckoo (Cacomantis passerinus) and Indian cuckoo (Cuculus micropterus), coppersmith barbet (Psilopogon haemacephalus), white-cheeked barbet (P. viridis) and brown-headed barbet (P. zeylanicus), grey francolin (Ortygornis pondicerianus), speckled piculet (Picumnus innominatus), Indian pond heron (Ardeola grayii), white-throated kingfisher (Halcyon smyrnensis), blue-winged parakeet (Psittacula columboides), Nilgiri wood pigeon (Columba elphinstonii), common emerald dove (Chalcophaps indica), yellow-footed pigeon (Treron phoenicoptera), red spurfowl (Galloperdix spadicea) and grey junglefowl (Gallus sonneratii), painted bush quail (Perdicula erythrorhyncha), crimson-backed sunbird (Leptocoma minima), Loten's sunbird (Cinnyris lotenius), forest wagtail (Dendronanthus indicus), white-browed wagtail (Motacilla maderaspatensis) black-and-orange flycatcher (Ficedula nigrorufa), Eurasian golden oriole (Oriolus oriolus) and black-hooded oriole (O. xanthornus).[20] In 2004, pin-striped tit-babblers (Mixornis gularis) were observed in a dry stream bed outside the protected area.[41] December to March is the breeding season of yellow-crowned woodpecker (Leiopicus mahrattensis), streak-throated woodpecker (Picus xanthopygaeus), yellow-throated sparrow (Gymnoris xanthocollis), blue-bearded bee-eater (Nyctyornis atherton), Indian robin (Saxicoloides fulicatus), scaly-breasted munia (Lonchura punctulata) and white-rumped munia (L. striata).[22]

Spot-bellied eagle-owl, Oriental scops owl (Otus sunia), brown boobook (Ninox scutulata) and jungle owlet (Glaucidium radiatum) are known night birds in the region.[42] A juvenile cinereous vulture (Aegypius monachus) was recorded in spring 2019.[43] The vulture populations in Moyar River valley were surveyed in March 2019. About 200 white-rumped vultures and about 30 active white-backed vulture (Gyps africanus) nests were observed; Indian vultures (G. indicus) and red-headed vultures (Sarcogyps calvus) were sighted at several locations.[44]

Sightings of migrating birds include booted eagle (Hieraaetus pennatus), rufous-bellied eagle (Lophotriorchis kienerii), Eurasian sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus), common buzzard (Buteo buteo), western marsh harrier (Circus aeruginosus) and pallid harrier (C. macrourus), cotton pygmy goose (Nettapus coromandelianus), knob-billed duck (Sarkidiornis melanotos), northern pintail (Anas acuta) and rosy starling (Pastor roseus).[20] White storks (Ciconia ciconia) were observed in December 2013 and February 2014.[45]

Reptiles

edit
 
Indian rock python feeding on a chital in Moyar River valley

In 1992, six Indian star tortoises (Geochelone elegans) were sighted in scrubland at elevations of 850–950 m (2,790–3,120 ft).[46] An ornate flying snake (Chrysopelea ornata) was observed in 2006.[47] The mugger crocodile (Crocodylus palustris) population in Moyar River was thought to encompass about 100 individuals as of 2009.[48] Small reptiles recorded in Mudumalai National Park comprise striped coral snake (Calliophis nigrescens), Elliot's forest lizard (Monilesaurus ellioti), Jerdon's day gecko (Cnemaspis jerdonii), Goan day gecko (C. indraneildasii) and Beddome's ground skink (Kaestlea beddomii).[49] A dead Bibron's coral snake (Calliophis bibroni) was discovered on the road in the Theppakadu area at an elevation of 894 m (2,933 ft) in August 2013, the first record since 1874.[50] A Bengal monitor (Varanus bengalensis) was recorded in 2018.[12] The Indian rock python (Python molurus) was studied in the frame of a telemetry project in the Moyar River valley from 2017 to 2020. In February 2019, a 3.7 m (12 ft) long female Indian rock python was observed mating with two smaller males measuring 1.98 and 2.22 m (6 ft 6 in and 7 ft 3 in).[51]

Fish

edit

The Moyar River and tributaries harbour 38 fish species, including Nilgiri mystus (Hemibagrus punctatus), Puntius mudumalaiensis, Puntius melanostigma, reba carp (Cirrhinus reba), common carp (Cyprinus carpio), Deccan mahseer (Tor khudree), Malabar baril (Barilius gatensis), mullya garra (Garra mullya), zig-zag eel (Mastacembelus armatus) and bullseye snakehead (Channa marulius).[10]

Threats

edit

From 1979 to 2011, remains of 148 dead Asian elephants were found in the park; 50 individuals were killed by poachers.[52] Traffic on three public roads cutting through Mudumalai National Park pose a significant threat to the park's wildlife; between December 1998 and March 1999 alone, 180 animals belonging to 40 species were killed by drivers.[53] Between December 2006 and November 2007, 101 amphibians and 78 reptiles became roadkills on a 6 km (3.7 mi) stretch of the national highway passing through the park including Indirana frogs, Indian skipper frog (Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis), bronzed frog (Indosylvirana temporalis), pigmy wrinkled frog (Nyctibatrachus beddomii), Asian common toad (Duttaphrynus melanostictus), common green forest lizard (Calotes calotes), Blanford's rock agama (Psammophilus blanfordanus), Mysore day gecko (Cnemaspis mysoriensis), bronze grass skink (Eutropis macularia), green keelback (Rhabdophis plumbicolor), trinket snake (Coelognathus helena), Russell's viper (Daboia russelii), common krait (Bungarus caeruleus) and hump-nosed viper (Hypnale hypnale).[54] Between January 2014 and December 2016, 497 Indian palm squirrels (Funambulus palmarum) were found killed in traffic collisions on a 40 km (25 mi) long stretch of a state highway passing through the park.[55] A 0.913 m (2 ft 11.9 in) long roadkilled Bibron's coral snake was found in September 2016.[56]

Proliferating tourism resorts and increasing demand for firewood at the national park's periphery are also considered threats to its ecosystem.[48] In 1995, the annual firewood need was estimated at 376 kg (829 lb) per person living in the periphery of the national park.[57]

Between 1999 and 2013, six forest fires affected dry deciduous forest patches ranging in size from 80 ha (200 acres) to 85 km2 (33 sq mi) in the northern part of the national park; the plant diversity in burned patches needs more than 15 years to recover.[58]

See also

edit

References

edit
  1. ^ Fabricius, J.P. (1972). "முது mutu". J. P. Fabricius's Tamil and English dictionary (Fourth, revised and enlarged ed.). Tranquebar: Evangelical Lutheran Mission Publishing House. p. 809. Archived from the original on 25 September 2021. Retrieved 24 April 2023.
  2. ^ McAlpin, D.W. (1981). "மலை". A core vocabulary for Tamil (Revised ed.). Philadelphia: Dept. of South Asia Regional Studies, University of Pennsylvania. p. 56. Archived from the original on 25 September 2021. Retrieved 24 April 2023.
  3. ^ Cleghorn, H. (1861). "Third report on forest operations". The forests and gardens of South India. London: W. H. Allen. pp. 59–112.
  4. ^ a b c Hegde, R. & Enters, T. (2000). "Forest products and household economy: a case study from Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, Southern India". Environmental Conservation. 27 (3): 250–259. doi:10.1017/S037689290000028X. S2CID 86160884.
  5. ^ Desai, A. & Bhargav, P. (2010). "Report on the progress of Village Relocation Mudumalai Tiger Reserve" (PDF). Report on the progress of Village Relocation Nagarahole and Mudumalai Tiger Reserves (Report). Delhi: National Tiger Conservation Authority. pp. 14–22. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 December 2022. Retrieved 24 April 2023.
  6. ^ Taghioff, D. & Menon, A. (2010). "Can a Tiger Change Its Stripes? The Politics of Conservation as Translated in Mudumalai" (PDF). Economic & Political Weekly. 54 (28): 69–76. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 April 2023. Retrieved 24 April 2023.
  7. ^ Rajesh, G.; APCCF (PT); Member Secretary (2010). Centrally Sponsored Plan Scheme 'Project Tiger' Administrative Approval for funds release to Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, Tamil Nadu during 2010–2011 (PDF) (Report). Vol. 4-1(32)/2010-PT. New Delhi: National Tiger Conservation Authority. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 January 2011. Retrieved 2 February 2011.
  8. ^ Saxena, S. (2020). Forests – Wildlife – Centrally Sponsored Scheme – Implementation of Project Tiger Scheme in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve for the year 2020-21 – Release of 1st Installment amount of Rs. 570.676 lakhs – Orders issued (PDF) (Report). Chennai: Environment and Forests (FR.5) Department, Government of Tamil Nadu. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 April 2021. Retrieved 23 April 2021.
  9. ^ a b Paulraj, S. & Subramanian, C. (2000). "Skewed sex ratio in elephant population – How it may affect the demography and population growth? A case study in Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park, Tamil Nadu, Southern India". Indian Forester. 126 (10): 1046–1053. Archived from the original on 24 April 2023. Retrieved 24 April 2023.
  10. ^ a b Manimekalan, A. (1998). "The fishes of Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu, south India". The Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. 95 (3): 431–443.
  11. ^ Sankar, C.V. (2012). Forests – Wildlife – Mudumalai Tiger Reserve (PDF). Government of Tamil Nadu Forest Department. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 August 2022. Retrieved 24 April 2023.
  12. ^ a b c d e f Jhala, Y.V.; Qureshi, Q. & Nayak, A.K. (2020). "Mudumalai Tiger Reserve" (PDF). Status of Tigers, Copredators & Prey in India, 2018. National Tiger Conservation Authority, Government of India, New Delhi, and Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun. pp. 502–509. ISBN 978-81-85496-50-4. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 December 2022. Retrieved 24 April 2023.
  13. ^ Khan, M.A.W. (1968). "West Coast tropical evergreen forest". In Champion, H.G. & Seth, S.K. (eds.). A Revised Survey of the Forest Types of India. Delhi: Manager of Publications, Government of India Press Masik. pp. 65–71. Archived from the original on 24 April 2023. Retrieved 24 April 2023.
  14. ^ a b c Sharma, B.D.; Shetty, B.V.; Virekananthan, K. & Rathakrishnan, N.C. (1978). "Flora of Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu". Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. 75 (1): 13–42.
  15. ^ a b Wikramanayake, E.; Dinerstein, E. & Colby, J. L. (2002). "15: South Western Ghats moist deciduous forests". Terrestrial Ecoregions of the Indo-Pacific: a Conservation Assessment. Washington, D.C.: Island Press. pp. 313–315. ISBN 9781559639231. Archived from the original on 24 April 2023. Retrieved 24 April 2023.
  16. ^ Puyravaud, J.P.; Cushman, S.A.; Davidar, P. & Madappa, D. (2017). "Predicting landscape connectivity for the Asian elephant in its largest remaining subpopulation". Animal Conservation. 20 (3): 225–234. doi:10.1111/acv.12314. S2CID 88870856.
  17. ^ Murali, K.S. & Sukumar, R. (1994). "Reproductive phenology of a tropical dry forest in Mudumalai, southern India". The Journal of Ecology. 82 (4): 759–767. doi:10.2307/2261441. JSTOR 2261441.
  18. ^ Joseph, S.; Reddy, C.S.; Pattanaik, C. & Sudhakar, S. (2008). "Distribution of plant communities along climatic and topographic gradients in Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary (southern India)". Biological Letters. 45 (1): 29–41. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.572.4297.
  19. ^ Kishore, B.S.P.C.; Kumar, A.; Saikia, P.; Lele, N.; Pandey, A.C.; Srivastava, P.; Bhattacharya, B.K. & Khan, M.L. (2020). "Major forests and plant species discrimination in Mudumalai forest region using airborne hyperspectral sensing". Journal of Asia-Pacific Biodiversity. 13 (4): 637–651. doi:10.1016/j.japb.2020.07.001.
  20. ^ a b c Gokula, V. & Vijayan, L. (1996). "Birds of Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, India" (PDF). Forktail. 12: 143–152. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 April 2023. Retrieved 24 April 2023.
  21. ^ Ramaswami, G. & Sukumar, R. (2011). "Woody plant seedling distribution under invasive Lantana camara thickets in a dry-forest plot in Mudumalai, southern India". Journal of Tropical Ecology. 27 (4): 365–373. doi:10.1017/S0266467411000137. S2CID 86730078.
  22. ^ a b Reddy, C.S.; Narayana, B.L.; Sharmila, G. & Kannan, G. (2017). "Nest-site selection of breeding birds in fragmented landscapes at Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, Tamil Nadu, India". Zoo's Print. 32 (7): 30–38. Archived from the original on 8 August 2022. Retrieved 24 April 2023.
  23. ^ Thirumurugan, V.; Prabakaran, N.; Nair, V.S. & Ramesh, C. (2021). "Ecological importance of two large heritage trees in Moyar River valley, southern India". Journal of Threatened Taxa. 13 (1): 17587–17591. doi:10.11609/jott.6095.13.1.17587-17591. ISSN 0974-7893.
  24. ^ Roy, P.; Leo, R.; Thomas, S.G.; Varghese, A.; Sharma, K.; Prasad, S.; Bradbear, N.; Roberts, S.; Potts, S.G. & Davidar, P. (2011). "Nesting requirements of the rock bee Apis dorsata in the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, India" (PDF). Tropical Ecology. 52 (3): 285–291. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 January 2022. Retrieved 24 April 2023.
  25. ^ Kalle, R.; Ramesh, T.; Qureshi, Q. & Sankar, K. (2011). "Density of tiger and leopard in a tropical deciduous forest of Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, southern India, as estimated using photographic capture–recapture sampling". Acta Theriologica. 56 (4): 335–342. doi:10.1007/s13364-011-0038-9. S2CID 196598615.
  26. ^ Kalle, R.; Ramesh, T.; Qureshi, Q. & Sankar, K. (2013). "The occurrence of small felids in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, Tamil Nadu, India". Cat News (58): 32–35.
  27. ^ Venkataraman, A.B.; Arumugam, R. & Sukumar, R. (1995). "The foraging ecology of dhole (Cuon alpinus) in Mudumalai Sanctuary, southern India". Journal of Zoology. 237 (4): 543–561. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1995.tb05014.x.
  28. ^ Ramesh, T.; Sankar, K. & Qureshi, Q. (2009). "Additional notes on the diet of Sloth Bear Melursus ursinus in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve as shown by scat analysis". Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. 106 (2): 204–206.
  29. ^ a b Kalle, R.; Ramesh, T.; Sankar, K. & Qureshi, Q. (2013). "Observations of sympatric small carnivores in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, Western Ghats, India". Small Carnivore Conservation. 49 (4): 53–59.
  30. ^ Kalle, R.; Ramesh, T.; Sankar, K. & Qureshi, Q. (2012). "Diet of mongoose in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, southern India". Journal of Scientific Transactions in Environment and Technovation. 6 (1): 44–51.
  31. ^ Narasimmarajan, K.; Hayward, M.W. & Mathai, M.T. (2021). "Assessing the occurrence and resource use pattern of Smooth-coated Otters Lutrogale perspicillata Geoffroy (Carnivora, Mustelidae) in the Moyar River of the Western Ghats Biodiversity Hotspot" (PDF). IUCN Otter Specialist Group Bulletin. 38 (1): 45–58. Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 October 2021. Retrieved 24 April 2023.
  32. ^ Baskaran, N.; Udhayan, A. & Desai, A.A. (2010). "Status of the Asian Elephant population in Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, southern India". Gajah (32): 6–13. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.1070.6845.
  33. ^ Ramesh, T.; Sankar, K.; Qureshi, Q. & Kalle, R. (2012). "Group size and population structure of megaherbivores (gaur Bos gaurus and Asian elephant Elephas maximus) in a deciduous habitat of Western Ghats, India". Mammal Study. 37 (1): 47–54. doi:10.3106/041.037.0106. S2CID 86098742.
  34. ^ Ramesh, T.; Sankar, K.; Qureshi, Q. & Kalle, R. (2012). "Group size, sex and age composition of chital (Axis axis) and sambar (Rusa unicolor) in a deciduous habitat of Western Ghats". Mammalian Biology. 77 (1): 53–59. doi:10.1016/j.mambio.2011.09.003.
  35. ^ Prasad, S.; Pittet, A. & Sukumar, R. (2010). "Who really ate the fruit? A novel approach to camera trapping for quantifying frugivory by ruminants" (PDF). Ecological Research. 25 (1): 225–231. doi:10.1007/s11284-009-0650-1. S2CID 46496767. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 April 2023. Retrieved 24 April 2023.
  36. ^ Ramakrishnan, U. & Coss, R.G. (2000). "Recognition of heterospecific alarm vocalization by Bonnet Macaques (Macaca radiata)". Journal of Comparative Psychology. 114 (1): 3–12. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.558.6257. doi:10.1037/0735-7036.114.1.3. PMID 10739307.
  37. ^ Sinha, A.; Mukhopadhyay, K.; Datta-Roy, A. & Ram, S. (2005). "Ecology proposes, behaviour disposes: Ecological variability in social organization and male behavioural strategies among wild bonnet macaques". Current Science. 89 (7): 1166–1179.
  38. ^ Baskaran, N.; Venkatesan, S.; Mani, J.; Srivastava, S.K. & Desai, A.A. (2011). "Some aspects of the ecology of the Indian Giant Squirrel Ratufa indica (Erxleben, 1777) in the tropical forests of Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, southern India and their conservation implications". Journal of Threatened Taxa. 3 (7): 1899–1908. doi:10.11609/JoTT.o2593.1899-908.
  39. ^ Babu, S.; Kumara, H.N. & Jayson, E.A. (2015). "Distribution, abundance, and habitat signature of the Indian Giant Flying Squirrel Petaurista philippensis (Elliot 1839) in the Western Ghats, India". Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. 112 (2): 65–71. doi:10.17087/jbnhs/2015/v112i2/104925.
  40. ^ Nachiketha, S.R. & Sreepada K.S. (2013). "Occurrence of Indian Painted Bat (Kerivuola picta) in dry deciduous forests of Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, Southern India" (PDF). Small Mammal Mail. 5 (1): 16–17. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 August 2022. Retrieved 24 April 2023.
  41. ^ Praveen, J.; Joseph, J. K. & Lethaby, N. (2004). "Sighting of Yellow-breasted Babbler Macronous gularis in South India". Newsletter for Ornithologists. 1 (3): 43.
  42. ^ Jayson, E.A. & Sivaram, M. (2009). Ecology and behaviour of forest owls in the Western Ghats and developing a habitat model for their conservation (Report). 343. Peechi, Kerala: Kerala Forest Research Institute.
  43. ^ Mohan, A. & Muralidhar, A. (2019). "Cinereous Vulture Aegypius monachus in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, Western Ghats, and its status in southern India". Indian Birds. 15 (3): 93–94.
  44. ^ Chandrasekaran, S. & Kannan, V. (2021). "Population survey of the highly threatened Gyps vultures in Sathyamangalam and Mudumalai tiger reserves, Tamil Nadu, India". Zoo's Print. 36 (7): 15–19. Archived from the original on 24 June 2022. Retrieved 24 April 2023.
  45. ^ Samson, A. & Ramakrishnan, B. (2018). "White Stork: Sighting record of Ciconia ciconia (Linnaeus, 1758) in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, Nilgiris, India". Zoo's Print. 33 (8): 16–18. Archived from the original on 24 June 2022. Retrieved 24 April 2023.
  46. ^ Bhupathy, S.; Silori, C.S. & Wesley Sunderraj, S.F. (1994). "Additional locality records for two Indian tortoise species". The Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. 91 (1): 149–150.
  47. ^ Kannan, P. (2006). "Record of ornate Flying Snake Chrysopelea ornata (Shaw) in Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, southern India". Cobra. 63: 13.
  48. ^ a b Johnsingh, A.J.T.; Raghunath, R.; Pillay, R. & Madhusudan, M.D. (2010). "Ensuring the future of the tiger and other large mammals in the southern portion of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, Southern India". Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. 107 (2): 77–85.
  49. ^ Srinivsaulu, C.; Srinivasulu, B. & Molur, S. (Compilers). (2014). The Status and Distribution of Reptiles in the Western Ghats, India Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (CAMP) (PDF). Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu: Wildlife Information Liaison Development Society. ISBN 978-81-88722-40-2. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 April 2023. Retrieved 24 April 2023.
  50. ^ Samson, A.; Ramakrishnan, B.; Rathinakumar, S.; Renuka, S.; Santhoshkumar, P. & Karthick, S. (2014). "Calliophis bibroni (Bibroni Coral Snake): Rediscovery in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, South India". Herpetological Bulletin. 127: 35–36.
  51. ^ Vishnu, S.N.; Ramesh, C.; Thirumurugan, V. & Sathish, C. (2021). "Size matters: First record of minimum male size at maturity and mating of free-ranging, endangered Indian Python Python molurus". Asian Journal of Conservation Biology. 10 (1): 153–158. doi:10.53562/ajcb.AQOE1932. S2CID 237985669.
  52. ^ Davidar, P.; Mammen, P.C.; Puyravaud, J.P.; Srivastava, R. & Wright, B. (2015). "Mortality records (1979–2011) shed light on threats to Asian Elephants Elephas maximus Linnaeus, 1758 (Mammalia: Proboscidea: Elephantidae) in Nilgiris, southern India". Journal of Threatened Taxa. 7 (8): 7436–7442. doi:10.11609/jott.o4332.7436-42.
  53. ^ Baskaran, N. & Boominathan, D. (2010). "Road kill of animals by highway traffic in the tropical forests of Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, southern India". Journal of Threatened Taxa. 2 (3): 753–759. doi:10.11609/JoTT.o2101.753-9.
  54. ^ Bhupathy, S.; Srinivas, G.; Kumar, N.S.; Karthik, T. & Madhivanan, A. (2011). "Herpetofaunal mortality due to vehicular traffic in the Western Ghats, India: a case study". Herpetotropicos. 5 (2): 119–126. Archived from the original on 9 August 2022. Retrieved 24 April 2023.
  55. ^ Samson, A.; Ramakrishnan, B. & Leonaprincy, J. (2020). "A threat assessment of Three-striped Palm Squirrel Funambulus palmarum (Mammalia: Rodentia: Sciuridae) from roadkills in Sigur Plateau, Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, Tamil Nadu, India". Journal of Threatened Taxa. 12 (10): 16347–16351. doi:10.11609/jott.3378.12.10.16347-16351.
  56. ^ Samson, A. J. & Leona Princy, J. (2019). "Largest record of Bibron's Coral Snake Calliophis bibroni Jan, 1858) in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, India". Zoo's Print. 34 (8): 10–11. Archived from the original on 8 August 2022. Retrieved 24 April 2023.
  57. ^ Ganesan, B. (1995). Fire, grazing, and extraction of non-timber forest products in the Nilgiris Biosphere Reserve, southern India: Implications for forest policy, sustainable use and local economies (Doctoral dissertation). New Brunswick: Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey. Archived from the original on 30 October 2021. Retrieved 24 April 2023.
  58. ^ Verma, S.; Singh, D.; Mani, S. & Jayakumar, S. (2017). "Effect of forest fire on tree diversity and regeneration potential in a tropical dry deciduous forest of Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, Western Ghats, India". Ecological Processes. 6 (32). doi:10.1186/s13717-017-0098-0.
edit