Wikipedia

List of Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points

This is a list of Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points. Since 1977, Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points (abbreviated GSSPs) are internationally agreed upon reference points on stratigraphic sections of rock which define the lower boundaries of stages on the geologic time scale. They are selected by the International Commission on Stratigraphy based on multiple factors, but their accessibility and the degree to which they are representative of the same boundary on sections worldwide are among the most important.

Since GSSPs require well-preserved sections of rock without interruptions in sedimentation, and since most are defined by different stages of animal life, defining them becomes progressively more difficult as one goes further back in time.

Organization of this list edit

This list is divided first into the geologic eras of the Phanerozoic (the Cenozoic, the Mesozoic, and the Paleozoic) and then into the geologic periods of each era. Each period is marked below the era bar on top of its subdivided epochs and stages. Each stage is assigned an age in mya, an acronym for million years ago, which is the age at which it began. Most of these ages are derived from astronomical cycles in sediments, magnetic data, biostratigraphic data, and radiometric dating methods. The GSSP assigned to each stage is that stage's lower boundary and oldest point.

Ages are given in "million year ago" (mya). They are obtained with different radiometric dating methods depending on the type of rock and its age. Ages that have a tilde (~) prefix are approximate ages for GSSPs that have not been defined or not been accurately dated.

The Status column has a "golden spike" for every GSSP which has been formally agreed by the ICS. Those without have only candidate sections which have not yet been formally ratified. The clock stands for times that are currently defined only by an age.

The "Defining markers" column lists the evidence in the rock used to define the boundary. (Ideally, these are applicable in rock sections worldwide.) Most of the boundaries rely on the fossil record (biologic), paleomagnetic data (magnetic), and/or climate data determined by carbon and oxygen isotopes.

List edit

Cenozoic edit

Quaternary edit

Epoch Stage Age (mya) Status GSSP location Defining markers Geographic Coordinates References
Holocene
Meghalayan 0.0042
 
 Mawmluh Cave, Meghalaya, India 25°15′44″N 91°42′54″E / 25.2622°N 91.7150°E / 25.2622; 91.7150 [1][2]
Northgrippian 0.0082
 
 NGRIP1 ice core,

Greenland

75°06′00″N 42°19′12″W / 75.1000°N 42.3200°W / 75.1000; -42.3200 [1]
Greenlandian 0.0117
 
 NGRIP2 ice core,

Greenland

75°06′00″N 42°19′12″W / 75.1000°N 42.3200°W / 75.1000; -42.3200 [1][3]
Pleistocene
Upper/Late 0.129 -
  • Climatic: Marine Isotope Substage 5e
 - -
Chibanian 0.774
 
 Chiba, Japan 35°17′39″N 140°08′47″E / 35.2943°N 140.1465°E / 35.2943; 140.1465 [4]
Calabrian 1.8
 
 Vrica Section,

Calabria, Italy

39°02′19″N 17°08′05″E / 39.0385°N 17.1348°E / 39.0385; 17.1348 [5]
Gelasian 2.58
 
 Monte San Nicola Section,

Gela, Sicily, Italy

37°08′47″N 14°12′16″E / 37.146468°N 14.204562°E / 37.146468; 14.204562 [6]

Neogene edit

Epoch Stage Age (mya) Status GSSP location Defining markers Geographic Coordinates References
Pliocene
Piacenzian 3.6
 
 Punta Piccola Section,

Porto Empedocle, Sicily, Italy

37°17′22″N 13°29′29″E / 37.289386°N 13.491443°E / 37.289386; 13.491443 [7]
Zanclean 5.333
 
 Heraclea Minoa section

Heraclea Minoa, Cattolica Eraclea, Sicily, Italy

37°23′33″N 13°16′52″E / 37.392435°N 13.281052°E / 37.392435; 13.281052 [8]
Miocene
Messinian 7.246
 
 Oued Akrech section,

Rabat, Morocco

33°55′30″N 6°48′33″W / 33.925050°N 6.809047°W / 33.925050; -6.809047 [9]
Tortonian 11.63
 
 Monte dei Corvi Beach section,

Ancona, Italy

43°35′14″N 13°33′58″E / 43.587242°N 13.566148°E / 43.587242; 13.566148 [10]
Serravallian 13.82
 
 Ras il Pellegrin section,

Fomm ir-Riħ Bay, Malta

35°54′50″N 14°20′10″E / 35.9139°N 14.3361°E / 35.9139; 14.3361 [11]
Langhian 15.98
 
 At 17.84 m in the 'Lower La Vedova Beach' section, Ancona, Italy 43°35′31″N 13°33′44″E / 43.5919°N 13.5623°E / 43.5919; 13.5623 [4]
Burdigalian 20.44 Candidate sections:
  • Astronomically tuned ODP core (e.g. Ceara Rise, Leg 154)
 - [4]
Aquitanian 23.03
 
 Lemme-Carrosio Section,

Carrosio, Italy

44°39′36″N 8°50′21″E / 44.6601°N 8.83928°E / 44.6601; 8.83928 [12]

Paleogene edit

Epoch Stage Age (mya) Status GSSP location Defining markers Geographic Coordinates References
Oligocene
Chattian 27.82
 
 Monte Cagnero, Central Apennines, Italy Biological: last occurrence of the planktonic foraminifer Chiloguembelina (Base of Foram Zone P21b) 43°38′48″N 12°28′04″E / 43.646748°N 12.467771°E / 43.646748; 12.467771 [13]
Rupelian 33.9
 
 Massignano quarry section,

Massignano, Ancona, Italy

43°32′10″N 13°35′33″E / 43.536038°N 13.592499°E / 43.536038; 13.592499 [14]
Eocene
Priabonian 37.71
 
 Alano section,

Piave river, Venetian Prealps, Belluno, Italy

45°54′51″N 11°55′05″E / 45.9141°N 11.9180°E / 45.9141; 11.9180 [15]
Bartonian 41.2 Contessa highway section

Gubbio, Central Apennines, Italy

43°22′47″N 12°33′44″E / 43.37972°N 12.56219°E / 43.37972; 12.56219 -
Lutetian 47.8
 
 Gorrondatxe sea-cliff section,

Western Pyrenees, Basque Country, Spain

43°22′47″N 3°00′51″W / 43.3796°N 3.0143°W / 43.3796; -3.0143 [16]
Ypresian 56
 
 Dababiya section,

Luxor, Egypt

  • Climatic: Base of negative Carbon Isotope Excursion (CIE).
 25°30′00″N 32°31′52″E / 25.5000°N 32.5311°E / 25.5000; 32.5311 [17][18]
Paleocene
Thanetian 59.2
 
 Zumaia Section,

Basque Country, Spain

  • Magnetic: Base of magnetic polarity chronozone C26n.
 43°17′59″N 2°15′39″W / 43.2996°N 2.2609°W / 43.2996; -2.2609 [19]
Selandian 61.6
 
 Zumaia Section,

Basque Country, Spain

  • Chemical: Onset of sea-level drop and carbon isotope shift.
  • Magnetic: 30 precession cycles after the top of magnetic polarity Chron 27n
 43°17′57″N 2°15′40″W / 43.2992°N 2.2610°W / 43.2992; -2.2610 [19]
Danian 66
 
 El Kef Section,

El Kef, Tunisia

36°09′13″N 8°38′55″E / 36.1537°N 8.6486°E / 36.1537; 8.6486 [20]

Mesozoic edit

Cretaceous edit

Epoch Stage Age (mya) Status GSSP location Defining markers Geographic Coordinates References
Upper
Maastrichtian 72.1
 
 Grande Carrière quarry,

Landes, France

43°40′46″N 1°06′48″W / 43.6795°N 1.1133°W / 43.6795; -1.1133 [21]
Campanian 83.6
 
 Bottaccione, Gubbio, Italy
  • Magnetic: Base of Chron C33r.
 43°21′46″N 12°34′58″E / 43.3627°N 12.5828°E / 43.3627; 12.5828 [22][23]
Santonian 86.3
 
 Olazagutia, Spain 42°52′00″N 2°11′48″W / 42.8668°N 2.1968°W / 42.8668; -2.1968 [4]
Coniacian 89.8
 
 Salzgitter-Salder quarry, Germany 52°07′27″N 10°19′46″E / 52.1243°N 10.3295°E / 52.1243; 10.3295 [4]
Turonian 93.9
 
 Rock Canyon,

Colorado, United States

38°16′56″N 104°43′39″W / 38.2822°N 104.7275°W / 38.2822; -104.7275 [24]
Cenomanian 100.5
 
 Mont Risoux,

Hautes-Alpes, France

44°23′28″N 5°30′39″E / 44.391120°N 5.510970°E / 44.391120; 5.510970 [25]
Lower
Albian 113
 
 Col de Pré-Guittard section, Arnayon, Drôme, France 44°30′28″N 5°17′50″E / 44.507861°N 5.297250°E / 44.507861; 5.297250 [26]

[27]

Aptian 121.4 Candidate section: - -
Barremian 125.77
 
 Río Argos, Caravaca de la Cruz, Murcia Province, Spain
  • Biologic: First appearance of Ammonite Taveraidiscus hugii.
 - [28]
Hauterivian 132.6
 
 La Charce, Drôme, France 44°28′10″N 5°26′37″E / 44.4694°N 5.4437°E / 44.4694; 5.4437 [29][30]
Valanginian 139.8 Candidates sections: - -
Berriasian 145 Candidate section:

Candidates:

Jurassic edit

Epoch Stage Age (mya) Status GSSP location Defining markers Geographic Coordinates References
Upper
Tithonian 149.2 Candidate sections: - -
Kimmeridgian 154.8
 
 Flodigarry, Isle of Skye, Scotland, U.K. 57°39′40″N 6°14′44″W / 57.6610°N 6.2455°W / 57.6610; -6.2455 [4]
Oxfordian 161.5 Candidate sections: - -
Middle
Callovian 165.3 Candidate sections: - -
Bathonian 168.2
 
 Ravin du Bès, Bas-Auran, Alpes de Haute, France 43°57′38″N 6°18′55″E / 43.9606°N 6.3153°E / 43.9606; 6.3153 [32]
Bajocian 170.9
 
 Cabo Mondego, Portugal 40°11′57″N 8°54′15″W / 40.1992°N 8.9042°W / 40.1992; -8.9042 [33]
Aalenian 174.7
 
 Fuentelsaz, Spain 41°4′44.9″N 1°49′49.2″W / 41.079139°N 1.830333°W / 41.079139; -1.830333 [34]
Lower
Toarcian 184.2
 
 Peniche, Portugal 39°22′15″N 9°23′07″W / 39.3708°N 9.3853°W / 39.3708; -9.3853 [35]
Pliensbachian 192.9
 
 Robin Hood's Bay, Yorkshire, England, U.K. 54°24′25″N 0°29′51″W / 54.4069°N 0.4975°W / 54.4069; -0.4975 [36]
Sinemurian 199.5
 
 East Quantoxhead, West Somerset, England, UK 51°11′27″N 3°14′11″W / 51.1909°N 3.2364°W / 51.1909; -3.2364 [37]
Hettangian 201.4
 
 Kuhjoch section, Karwendel mountains, Northern Calcareous Alps, Austria 47°29′02″N 11°31′50″E / 47.4839°N 11.5306°E / 47.4839; 11.5306

Triassic edit

Epoch Stage Age (mya) Status GSSP location Defining markers Geographic Coordinates References
Upper
Rhaetian ~208.5 Candidate sections: - -
Norian ~227 Candidate sections: - -
Carnian ~237
 
 Prati di Stuores, Dolomites, Italy 46°31′37″N 11°55′49″E / 46.5269°N 11.9303°E / 46.5269; 11.9303 [39]
Middle
Ladinian ~242
 
 Bagolino, Lombardian pre-Alps, Italy 45°49′06″N 10°28′13″E / 45.818380°N 10.470270°E / 45.818380; 10.470270 [40]
Anisian 247.2 Candidate sections: 45°04′27″N 28°48′08″E / 45.0742°N 28.8022°E / 45.0742; 28.8022
Lower
Olenekian 251.2 Candidate sections: 31°57′55″N 78°01′29″E / 31.9654°N 78.0246°E / 31.9654; 78.0246
Induan 251.9
 
 Meishan, Zhejiang, China 31°04′47″N 119°42′21″E / 31.0798°N 119.7058°E / 31.0798; 119.7058

Paleozoic edit

Permian edit

Epoch Stage Age (mya) Status GSSP location Defining markers Geographic Coordinates References
Lopingian
Changhsingian 254.14
 
 Zhejiang, China 31°04′55″N 119°42′23″E / 31.0819°N 119.7064°E / 31.0819; 119.7064 [41]
Wuchiapingian 259.51
 
 Penglaitan Section,

Laibin, Guangxi, China

23°41′43″N 109°19′16″E / 23.6953°N 109.3211°E / 23.6953; 109.3211 [42]
Guadalupian
Capitanian 264.28
 
 Nipple Hill, Guadalupe Mountains, Texas, U.S.A. 31°54′33″N 104°47′21″W / 31.9091°N 104.7892°W / 31.9091; -104.7892 [4]
Wordian 266.9
 
 Guadalupe Pass, Guadalupe Mountains, Texas, U.S.A. 31°51′57″N 104°49′58″W / 31.8658°N 104.8328°W / 31.8658; -104.8328 [4]
Roadian 273.01
 
 Stratotype Canyon, Guadalupe Mountains, Texas, U.S.A. 31°52′36″N 104°52′36″W / 31.8767°N 104.8768°W / 31.8767; -104.8768 [4]
Cisuralian
Kungurian 283.5 Candidate section: - [4]
Artinskian 290.1
 
 Dalny Tulkas section, Southern Ural Mountains, Russia 53°53′18″N 56°30′58″E / 53.88847°N 56.51615°E / 53.88847; 56.51615 [4]
Sakmarian 293.52
 
 Usolka section, Southern Urals, Russia 53°55′29″N 56°43′43″E / 53.9247°N 56.7287°E / 53.9247; 56.7287 [43][44]
Asselian 298.9
 
 Aidaralash, Ural Mountains, Kazakhstan 50°14′45″N 57°53′29″E / 50.2458°N 57.8914°E / 50.2458; 57.8914 [45]

Carboniferous edit

Epoch Stage Age (mya) Status GSSP location Defining markers Geographic Coordinates References
Pennsylvanian
Gzhelian 303.7 Candidate sections: - [4]
Kasimovian 307 Candidate sections: - [4]
Moscovian 315.2 Candidate sections: - [4]
Bashkirian 323.2
 
 Arrow Canyon, Nevada, United States 36°44′00″N 114°46′40″W / 36.7333°N 114.7778°W / 36.7333; -114.7778 [46]
Mississippian
Serpukhovian 330.9 Candidate sections: - [4]
Visean 346.7
 
 Pengchong Section,

Guangxi, China

24°26′00″N 109°27′00″E / 24.4333°N 109.4500°E / 24.4333; 109.4500 [4]
Tournaisian 358.9
 
 La Serre, Montagne Noire, France 43°33′20″N 3°21′31″E / 43.55554°N 3.35868°E / 43.55554; 3.35868 [47]

Devonian edit

Epoch Stage Age (mya) Status GSSP location Defining markers Geographic Coordinates References
Upper
Famennian 372.2
 
 Coumiac quarry,Coumiac [fr]

Montagne Noire, France

43°28′14″N 3°03′35″E / 43.4705°N 3.0597°E / 43.4705; 3.0597 [48]
Frasnian 382.7
 
 Col du Puech de la Suque, Montagne Noire, France 43°30′12″N 3°05′12″E / 43.5032°N 3.0868°E / 43.5032; 3.0868 [49]
Middle
Givetian 387.7
 
 Jebel Mech Irdane, Tafilalt, Morocco 31°14′15″N 4°21′15″W / 31.2374°N 4.3541°W / 31.2374; -4.3541 [50]
Eifelian 393.3
 
 Wetteldorf Richtschnitt section,

Wetteldorf, Eifel, Germany

50°08′59″N 6°28′18″E / 50.1496°N 6.4716°E / 50.1496; 6.4716 [51]
Lower
Emsian 407.6
 
 Zinzil'ban Gorge, Uzbekistan 39°12′00″N 67°18′20″E / 39.2000°N 67.3056°E / 39.2000; 67.3056 [52]
Pragian 410.8
 
 Velká Chuchle quarry

Velká Chuchle, Prague, Czech Republic

50°00′53″N 14°22′21″E / 50.0147°N 14.3726°E / 50.0147; 14.3726 [53]
Lochkovian 419.2
 
 Klonk, Prague, Czech Republic 49°54′03″N 14°03′40″E / 49.90083°N 14.06111°E / 49.90083; 14.06111 [4]

Silurian edit

Epoch Stage Age (mya) Status GSSP location Defining markers Geographic Coordinates References
Přídolí 423
 
 Požáry Section,

Řeporyje District, Prague, Czech Republic

50°01′40″N 14°19′30″E / 50.0277°N 14.3249°E / 50.0277; 14.3249 [54]
Ludlow
Ludfordian 425.6
 
 Sunnyhill, Ludlow, Shropshire, England, U.K. 52°21′33″N 2°46′38″W / 52.3592°N 2.7772°W / 52.3592; -2.7772 [55]
Gorstian 427.4
 
 Pitch Coppice, Ludlow, Shropshire, England, U.K. 52°21′33″N 2°46′38″W / 52.3592°N 2.7772°W / 52.3592; -2.7772 [55]
Wenlock
Homerian 430.5
 
 Whitwell Coppice, Homer, England, U.K. 52°36′56″N 2°33′53″W / 52.6156°N 2.5647°W / 52.6156; -2.5647 [55]
Sheinwoodian 433.4
 
 Hughley Brook, Apedale, England, U.K.
  • Imprecise GSSP. Will be reexamined.
  • Biologic: Currently between acritarch biozone 5 and last appearance of Pterospathodus amorphognathoides. Candidate boundaries are a conodont boundary (Ireviken datum 2) which is close to the murchisoni graptolite biozone.
 52°34′52″N 2°38′20″W / 52.5811°N 2.6389°W / 52.5811; -2.6389 [4][55]
Llandovery
Telychian 438.5
 
 El Pintado section,

Province of Seville, Spain

  • Biologic: FAD of the graptolite Spirograptus guerichi
 - [56][57]
Aeronian 440.8
 
 Hlásná Třebaň section, Czech Republic
  • Biologic: First appearance of Demirastrites triangulatus (Graptolite).
 - [57][58]
Rhuddanian 443.8
 
 Dob's Linn, Moffat, Dumfries-shire, Scotland, U.K. 55°25′48″N 3°16′19″W / 55.429889°N 3.272036°W / 55.429889; -3.272036 [54]

Ordovician edit

Epoch Stage Age (mya) Status GSSP location Defining markers Geographic Coordinates References
Upper
Hirnantian 445.2
 
 Wangjiawan section

Wangjiawan, Yichang, China

  • Biologic: First appearance of Normalograptus extraordinarius (Graptolite).
  • Climatic: Base of major positive carbon isotope excursion.
  • Climatic: Beginning of sea-level fall associated with onset of a major glaciation.
 30°59′03″N 111°25′11″E / 30.9841°N 111.4197°E / 30.9841; 111.4197 [59]
Katian 453
 
 Black Knob Ridge section,

Oklahoma, United States

34°25′50″N 96°04′29″W / 34.4305°N 96.0746°W / 34.4305; -96.0746 [60]
Sandbian 458.4
 
 Fågelsång section

Sularp Brook, Skåne, Sweden

55°42′49″N 13°19′32″E / 55.7137°N 13.3255°E / 55.7137; 13.3255 [61]
Middle
Darriwilian 467.3
 
 Huangnitang Section

Huangnitang Village, Changshan, Zhejiang, China

28°51′14″N 118°29′23″E / 28.8539°N 118.4897°E / 28.8539; 118.4897 [62]
Dapingian 470
 
 Huanghuachang section

Huanghuachang, Yichang, China

30°51′38″N 111°22′26″E / 30.8605°N 111.3740°E / 30.8605; 111.3740 [63][64]
Lower
Floian 477.7
 
 Diabasbrottet quarry,

Västergötland, Sweden

58°21′32″N 12°30′09″E / 58.3589°N 12.5024°E / 58.3589; 12.5024 [65]
Tremadocian 485.4
 
 Greenpoint section

Green Point, Newfoundland, Canada

49°40′58″N 57°57′55″W / 49.6829°N 57.9653°W / 49.6829; -57.9653 [66]

Cambrian edit

Epoch Stage Age (mya) Status GSSP location Defining markers Geographic Coordinates References
Furongian
Stage 10 489.5 Candidate sections:

Candidates:

- [67]
Jiangshanian ~494
 
 Duibian B Section

Duibian, Zhejiang, China

28°48′57″N 118°36′54″E / 28.815967°N 118.614933°E / 28.815967; 118.614933 [68]
Paibian ~497
 
 Paibi section

Paibi, Hunan, China

28°23′22″N 109°31′33″E / 28.3895°N 109.5257°E / 28.3895; 109.5257 [69]
Miaolingian
Guzhangian ~500.5
 
 Luoyixi section

Luoyixi, Guzhang, Hunan, China

28°43′12″N 109°57′53″E / 28.7200°N 109.9647°E / 28.7200; 109.9647 [70]
Drumian ~504.5
 
 Drumian section

Wheeler Shale, Utah, U.S.A.

39°30′42″N 112°59′29″W / 39.5117°N 112.9915°W / 39.5117; -112.9915 [71]
Wuliuan ~509
 
 Wuliu-Zengjiayan, Guizhou, China 26°04′51″N 108°24′50″E / 26.0807°N 108.4138°E / 26.0807; 108.4138 [72][73]
Series 2
Stage 4 ~514 None - [74]
Stage 3 ~521 None - [75][76]
Terreneuvian
Stage 2 ~529 None - -
Fortunian 538.8
 
 Fortune head section,

Newfoundland, Canada

47°04′34″N 55°49′52″W / 47.0762°N 55.8310°W / 47.0762; -55.8310 [77]

Precambrian edit

Proterozoic edit

Era Period Age (mya) Status GSSP location Defining markers Geographic Coordinates References
Neoproterozoic
Ediacaran ~635
 
 Enorama Creek section

Flinders Ranges, South Australia

  • Geologic: Worldwide distinct cap carbonates.
  • Isotopic: Beginning of a distinctive pattern of secular changes in carbon isotopes.
 31°19′53″S 138°38′00″E / 31.3314°S 138.6334°E / -31.3314; 138.6334 [78]
Cryogenian ~720 Defined chronometrically with an interim calibrated age of ca. 720 Ma. GSSP is in progress.
  • Geologic: the GSSP has been recommended to be placed at a stratigraphic level beneath the first appearance of widespread glaciation associated with the Sturtian glacial epoch.[79]
 - [79]
Tonian 1000
 
 Defined chronometrically - - [80]
Mesoproterozoic
Stenian 1200
 
 Defined chronometrically - - [80]
Ectasian 1400
 
 Defined chronometrically - - [80]
Calymmian 1600
 
 Defined chronometrically - - [80]
Paleoproterozoic
Statherian 1800
 
 Defined chronometrically - - [80]
Orosirian 2050
 
 Defined chronometrically - - [80]
Rhyacian 2300
 
 Defined chronometrically - - [80]
Siderian 2500
 
 Defined chronometrically - - [80]

Archean and Hadean edit

Eon Era Age (mya) Status GSSP/GSSA location Defining markers Geographic Coordinates References
Archean
Neoarchean 2800
 
 - Defined chronometrically - -
Mesoarchean 3200
 
 - Defined chronometrically - -
Paleoarchean 3600
 
 - Defined chronometrically - -
Eoarchean 4031
 
 Along the Acasta River, Northwest Territories, Canada Defined chronometrically

Ten oldest U-Pb zircon ages

65°10′26″N 115°33′14″W / 65.1738°N 115.5538°W / 65.1738; -115.5538 [4]
Hadean - 4567.3
 
 - Defined chronometrically

Formation of the Solar System

- [4]

See also edit

References edit

  1. ^ a b c Walker, Mike; Head, Martin J.; Berkelhammer, Max; Björck, Svante; Cheng, Hai; Cwynar, Les; Fisher, David; Gkinis, Vasilios; Long, Anthony; Lowe, John; Newnham, Rewi; Rasmussen, Sune Olander; Weiss, Harvey (1 December 2018). "Formal ratification of the subdivision of the Holocene Series/ Epoch (Quaternary System/Period): two new Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSPs) and three new stages/subseries" (PDF). Episodes. 41 (4): 213–223. doi:10.18814/epiiugs/2018/018016. Retrieved 28 August 2020.
  2. ^ Head, Martin J. (17 May 2019). "Formal subdivision of the Quaternary System/Period: Present status and future directions". Quaternary International. 500: 32–51. Bibcode:2019QuInt.500...32H. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2019.05.018. S2CID 182783922. Retrieved 28 August 2020.
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External links edit

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