Wikipedia

Korean Wave

(Redirected from K-wave: MENA region (Middle East and North Africa))

The Korean Wave or Hallyu (Korean: 한류; Hanja: 韓流; RR: Hallyu; lit. Flow/Wave of Korea; listenⓘ) is a cultural phenomenon in which the global popularity of South Korean popular culture has dramatically risen since the 1990s. Worldwide interest in Korean culture has been led primarily by the spread of K-pop, K-dramas and films, with keystone successes including K-pop group BTS, television series Squid Game (2021), and Oscar-winning film Parasite (2019).[1] The Korean Wave has been recognized as a form of soft power and as an important economic asset for South Korea, generating revenue through both exports and tourism.[2]

Following the 1997 Asian financial crisis and the end of military censorship over the South Korean entertainment industry, South Korea emerged as a major exporter of popular culture. The Korean Wave was first driven by the spread of K-dramas and Korean cinema into East Asia and parts of Southeast Asia, following the rise of satellite media in the late 1990s. Chinese journalists first coined the term "Korean Wave" (Chinese: 韓流; pinyin: hánliú; lit. 'Korean wave') in 1999, referring to the success of Korean popular culture in China. During the 2000s, Hallyu evolved into a global phenomenon, expanding rapidly into South Asia, the Middle East, and Eastern Europe. By 2008, the value of cultural exports from South Korea surpassed the value of cultural imports for the first time.[3] This expansion was fueled by the advent of social media and the Internet, which played key roles in allowing the Korean entertainment industry reach overseas audiences, as well as the endorsement of the phenomenon by the South Korean government.

Etymology

edit

The term Hallyu (Korean: 한류; Hanja: 韓流) is a neologism composed of two root words: han (한; 韓) meaning "Korean" and ryu (류; 流) meaning "flow", "wave", or "trend".[4] On 19 November 1999, the Beijing Youth Daily published the first known use of the term "Korean wave" (Chinese: 韩流; pinyin: hánliú; lit. 'Korean wave') in an article describing the "zeal of Chinese audiences for Korean TV dramas and pop songs."[5] Other terms used at the time included "Korean tide", "Korean heat", and "Korean wind".[5] In China, the term "Han fever" was also used, comparing the phenomenon to the ongoing Avian flu pandemic in the country.[6] The term entered common usage following the airing of the romance K-drama Winter Sonata, which was particularly successful in Japan.[7]: 13 

Hallyu refers to the international diffusion of South Korean culture since the 1990s, following the end of military rule and the liberalization of the culture industry.[8] The term primarily refers to the spread of Korean television, pop music, film, and fashion, but can also include animation, video games, technology, literature, cosmetics, and food.[9][10][11] While the first generation of Hallyu in the late 1990s to early 2000s remained confined to Asia and referred to the popularity of Korean dramas and film on the continent, the second generation, or Hallyu 2.0, was driven primarily by the popularity of K-pop distributed on online platforms like YouTube.[12] Both "Hallyu" and "Korean wave", were added to the Oxford English Dictionary in 2021.[13]

Background

edit

Under the military dictatorship of Park Chung Hee, South Korean mass media underwent a process of rapid expansion, despite facing increasing control and censorship from the government.[14] As part of Park's development plans, the first commercial radio and television stations opened in the early 1960s and were subject to strict censorship under the Broadcasting Ethics Committee (Korean: 방송윤리위원회).[14] This brief expansion ended in 1972, when Park enacted the Yushin Constitution which broadly expanded his powers and codified his de facto dictatorial rule.[15] The enactment of the Yushin Constitution coincided with a broad crackdown on the South Korean culture industry against what Park alleged was the influence of "foreign decadent culture".[16] Following Park's death and the 1979 coup d'état of December Twelfth, the military regime of Chun Doo-hwan enacted additional restrictions over the media.[17] In 1980, Chun forced the merger of all 29 private broadcasters into the state-owned Korean Broadcasting System (KBS) and Munhwa Broadcasting Corporation (MBC), creating a state-led media monopoly.[17][18]

As a part of the decolonization process in South Korea, imports of all Japanese media were banned in 1945.[19] Despite this ban, Japanese media was still widely distributed and pirated in South Korea, with both state broadcasters and individual bootleggers being found guilty of illegal importation.[20][21]: 132  The signing of the Japan–South Korea Joint Declaration of 1998 ended this ban, and it was gradually lifted across four stages between 1998 and 2004.[19][21]: 136–137  To protect the South Korean culture industry, the South Korean Ministry of Culture received a substantial budget increase, allowing for the creation of hundreds of culture industry departments in universities nationwide.[22] It has justified its financial support for Hallyu, estimated to be worth US$83.2 billion in 2012, by linking it to South Korea's export-driven economy.[23]

First generation

edit

The first generation of the Korean Wave, also called Hallyu 1.0, was the initial rise in popularity of Korean popular culture within nearby Asian countries.[24]: 2  The first generation began in China during the late 1990s, and consisted primarily of the spread of Korean television programming.[24]: 2 

Television in the first generation

edit
 
The filming location of Jewel in the Palace at Dae Jang Geum Theme Park

In 1990, the National Assembly granted a broadcasting license to the regional Seoul Broadcasting System (SBS), becoming the first private television station since the forced nationalization of private broadcasters in 1980.[18] In December 1991, the National Assembly passed the Cable Television Act which directed the Ministry of Information to provide permits to twenty prospective cable television program providers.[18] The providers were selected in August 1993, and cable television services began in March, 1995.[18] With the liberalization of the South Korean television market, a greater number of Korean programs started to be exported abroad.[25] These media exports were first exported to China, after the two countries formally established diplomatic relations in 1992.[26] Although Jealousy (1992) was the first K-drama broadcast on China Central Television (CCTV),[6] the 1997 broadcasts of the K-drama First Love and Star in My Heart in China are generally considered the start of the Korean Wave.[25][27][7]: 14–15 [28] Compounding the foreign interest in Korean television programs, countries throughout East Asia began opening their television markets to foreign countries in the 1980s and 1990s.[29] In the early 1970s, imported television programs made up less than 1 percent of all airtime on CCTV, while by the late 1990s, that number would rise to 20–30 percent.[30] In Vietnam, Korean television made up more than half of all imported programming in 1988.[25]

The 1997 Asian financial crisis led broadcasters throughout East Asia to seek cheaper programs as an alternative to the expensive, but popular broadcasts from Japan.[20] In 2000, K-dramas were a quarter of the price of Japanese television programs and a tenth of the price of Hong Kong television programs.[25] K-dramas first entered the Taiwanese market during the early 1990s, but the shift to Korean television programming following the financial crisis and the successful airing of Fireworks (2000) and Autumn in My Heart (2000) marked the start of the Korean Wave in the country.[31]

The 2003 historical K-drama Jewel in the Palace has been credited for having the greatest impact on the popularity of Korean television programs in Chinese-speaking countries, including Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore, and China.[32] In May 2005, the show's final episode became the highest-rated television episode in Hong Kong history at more than 40 percent.[30] In the years following its release, the program was exported to over 80 countries around the world.[24]: 11  At the same time, the 2003–2004 airing of the romance K-drama Winter Sonata in Japan marked the entrance of the Korean Wave to Japan.[33] Winter Sonata achieved a cult following in Japan among women in their 30s, particularly around the show's lead actor Bae Young-joon.[34] This would lead Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi to exclaim in 2004 that "Bae Yong-joon is more popular than I am in Japan."[35] Following the broadcast, stereotypes of Korea in Japan changed dramatically and tourism from Japan to South Korea would spike,[36][37] primarily among Japanese women.[38]: 1 

In the Indian state of Manipur, Hindi-language movies and television channels were banned in 2000 by insurgents, leading broadcasters to use Korean programming as substitutes.[39] Korean dramas and films were also commonly smuggled into the region in the form of CDs and DVDs.[40]

By the late 2000s, K-dramas became part of the daily programming of local television channels across East Asia[41] and in China, Korean programs made up more than all other foreign programming combined.[38]: 2  During the period between 1997 and 2007, television exports from South Korea would increase from $8.3 million to $151 million, mostly to other Asian markets.[42] As the volume of Korean cultural imports rapidly increased, China's State Administration of Radio, Film, and Television responded with a decision to restrict and limit the number of Korean TV dramas shown to Chinese audiences.[43] In Taiwan, the National Communications Commission asked cable channels to reduce the number of prime time hours allocated to Korean programming.[42] In addition, in response to the popularity of Jewel in the Palace, director Zhang Guoli and actor Jackie Chan both called on domestic audiences to "resist Korean Wave".[44]

Film in the first generation

edit

In 1966, military dictator Park Chung Hee established screen quotas that restricted the number of foreign films shown in cinemas, intended to protect the Korean film industry from Hollywood blockbusters.[45] However, in 1986, the Motion Pictures Exporters Association of America filed a complaint to the United States Senate regarding the restrictions imposed by the South Korean government.[46] Under US pressure and despite fierce opposition from the domestic film industry, in 1988, the Korean government lifted restrictions that required foreign films to be distributed by domestic companies.[47] In 1988, 20th Century Fox became the first American film studio to set up a distribution office in South Korea, followed by Warner Brothers in 1989, Columbia in 1990, and Disney in 1993.[48] By 1994, domestic films reached a record low market share of just 15.4 percent,[49] with commentators predicting the demise of the Korean film industry in the near-future.[47] As well, negotiations for the Uruguay Round Agreements Act concluded in 1994, requiring South Korea to liberalize its communications and culture markets.[50]

In response to these crises, the National Assembly instituted the Cultural Industry Bureau within the Ministry of Culture and Sports[51] and passed the Motion Picture Promotion Law in 1995, providing tax incentives for film production.[47] These incentives were successful in attracting a number of chaebols to the film industry, but these ventures were financially unsuccessful, and most disbanded following the 1997 Asian financial crisis.[52] In January 1999, the Samsung Entertainment Group announced its dissolution and released its final film Shiri in February of that year.[53] But despite the withdrawal of Samsung from the industry, Shiri set box office records in South Korea and achieved commercial success in Hong Kong and Japan, a rare feat for the time.[54] Shiri had been funded partly through venture capital, and the success of the film led to a 1999 revision of the Motion Picture Promotion Law to allow individuals to finance film productions.[55] This influx of capital would fund hundreds of Korean films and dramatically increase their budgets, with average costs per production rising from 0.9 billion won in 1995 to 42 billion won in 2004.[56] The 2001 film My Sassy Girl achieved box office success in Hong Kong and Japan, and was the subject of multiple foreign remakes.[57]

Music in the first generation

edit

Prior to the mid-1990s, South Korean music was largely devoid of foreign interest.[58] While SK, Daewoo, and Samsung had expanded into the South Korean music industry during the mid-1990s, under similar circumstances to the South Korean film industry, the 1997 Asian financial crisis abruptly ended these ventures.[59] This vacuum was filled by SM Entertainment (founded by Lee Soo-man in 1995), YG Entertainment (founded by Yang Hyun-seok of Seo Taiji and Boys in 1996), and JYP Entertainment (founded by R&B singer Park Jin-young in 1997).[60] K-pop first gained popularity in China after the 1997 radio program Seoul Music Room began broadcasting in Beijing.[57]

The debuts of BoA in 2000, Rain in 2002, TVXQ in 2003, Super Junior in 2005, BigBang in 2006, and Wonder Girls and Girls' Generation in 2007 were major breakthroughs for K-pop in Asia.[citation needed] BoA became the first South Korean pop star to break into the Japanese market with the release of her album Listen to My Heart (2002), following the fall of barriers that had restricted the import and export of entertainment between the countries since the end of World War II.[61][62] During the 2008 fiscal year, 68 percent of all K-pop exports from South Korea were exported to Japan.[63]

Second generation

edit
 
Girls' Generation at SM Town Live NY in 2011
 
K-pop songs being played by the South Korean conglomerate LG at the IFA trade exhibition in Germany in 2011

Hallyu 2.0 or the New Korean Wave refers to the second generation of the Korean Wave, beginning in 2008. This generation is characterized by the spread of Korean popular culture through social media[64] and the transition to K-pop as the primary South Korean cultural export.[65] The period marked the rapid expansion of the South Korean music, animation, and online gaming industries[65] and a shift in government policy, from indifference to enthusiastic support, under the Lee Myung-bak and Park Geun-hye administrations.[66][67] The mid-2000s marked the expansion of the Korean Wave outside of East Asia into other parts of Asia, while the mid-2010s marked the Korean Wave's expansion outside of Asia into Europe, the Americas, and Africa.[68]: 4 [69] During this period, social media and platforms like YouTube, Netflix, and Webtoon played a key role in the dissemination of South Korean popular culture.[70][71]

Since the mid-2010s, the rising success of K-pop groups abroad have become characteristic of the Korean Wave.[72] These successes were led by the meteoric rise of the music video for Psy's "Gangnam Style".[72] According to a poll conducted by the Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism during the COVID-19 pandemic, Crash Landing on You, It's Okay to Not Be Okay, and The World of the Married were the three most popular television programs internationally.[73] In the United States, the Korean Wave spread outwards from Korean-American communities, most notably in New York City and Los Angeles.[74]

Since September 2022, the Victoria and Albert Museum has hosted the exhibition "Hallyu! The Korean Wave," showcasing the history of the Korean Wave in fashion, music, dance, and art.[75][76] Min Jin Lee, the author of the novel Pachinko, credited the Korean Wave for her success.[77]

Government policy

edit
See also: Korean Culture and Information Service, Korean Cultural Centers, and Korea Foundation
 
K-pop fans outside the Korean Cultural Center in Warsaw holding up a South Korean-Polish flag, as well as banners for Korean boybands MBLAQ, B1A4, and 2PM in 2011

The success of South Korean cultural products in Asia has led some governments to pass measures to protect their own cultural industries. China made specific efforts to stem the flow of Korean films and dramas into their countries, hurting their sales.[78][page needed] This motivated the South Korean cultural industry to break into markets outside of Asia.[78][page needed]

Prior to the 1990s, the Korean government prioritized funding traditional forms of Korean culture over contemporary Korean pop culture.[78][page needed] However, in 1993 the government shifted to a policy of cultural commercialization, incorporating cultural products as economic exports.[78][page needed] In 1999, the National Assembly passed the Basic Law for Promoting Cultural Industries which provided government support for Korean cultural products.[78][page needed]

The Internet

edit

Since the 2000s, the Korean Wave has transformed from a phenomenon driven primarily by satellite broadcasts to one driven by social media and the Internet.[79] Foreign-language subtitles of K-dramas and real-time translations of K-pop performances on the Internet broadened the scope of Korean pop culture.[79] YouTube has enabled fans to connect with K-pop through their own content, such as dance covers and reaction videos/channels.[80] The creation of remakes on YouTube acted as consumer-generated advertising and helped propel the virality of "Gangnam Style."[81][page needed][82]

Music in the second generation

edit
See also: K-pop

YouTube and other online video platforms have been vital in the increasing international popularity of K-pop.[83] Asia Today wrote that Korean music content began to receive attention in the global pop culture world starting with Wonder Girls in the late 2000s, with BigBang, 2NE1, Blackpink, and BTS later setting new records on Billboard "one after another".[84] In 2012, Psy's music video for "Gangnam Style" went viral and became the first YouTube video to reach one billion views in December of that year.[85] The release of "Gangnam Style" helped push K-pop into mainstream Indian culture.[86][87]

BTS and other groups have sustained success globally, with world tours and appearances at US Billboard Music Awards and other foreign events.[71] BTS won twelve Billboard Music Awards and eleven American Music Awards, and received five nominations at the Grammy Awards. BTS sold out four concerts at SoFi Stadium in Los Angeles in 2021.[88] Since the 2010s, there have been a greater number of collaborations between K-pop and foreign artists, such as BTS with Steve Aoki and Psy with Snoop Dogg.[89] For many Korean artists, domestic popularity no longer correlates to overall success abroad as South Korea is no longer the world's largest K-pop consumer.[90]

Television in the second generation

edit

Since the mid-2000s, the three major South Korean broadcast television networks, KBS, MBC, and SBS, have faced increasing competition from comprehensive television networks with integrated production teams.[24]: 10–11  The second generation of the Korean Wave produced a number of innovative television programs, including the absurd romantic comedy My Love from the Star, the reality variety show Running Man, the live audition programs like Superstar K.[91]

The 2006 historical K-drama Jumong was hugely successful in Turkey, Romania, and Iran, where it achieved nationwide ratings of 80 to 90 percent.[92][93][94] The 2019 K-drama Kingdom was highly successful in India.[95] During the COVID-19 pandemic in India, streaming services in India saw a dramatic rise in interest for Korean-language programming.[96]

Film in the second generation

edit

During the first generation of the Korean Wave, Korean films that were exported abroad were primarily consumed in other Asian countries.[71] Through online streaming services like Netflix, the South Korean entertainment industry has been able to expand outside of East Asia. The 2019 black comedy thriller film Parasite won several awards at international film festivals, including four Academy Awards for Best Picture, Best Director, Best Original Screenplay, and Best International Film.[71] Parasite also made history as the first non-English language film to win the Academy Award for Best Picture.[97]

Manhwa

edit
Main article: Manhwa

Manhwa, the Korean term for comics, first gained popularity outside of Korea during the early 2000s when manhwa were first became available on the Internet.[70][98] The term "manhwa" is derived from the Korean words "manhwa" (만화), which can be translated to "comics" or "cartoons.  Manhwa is directly influenced by Japanese Manga comics. It encompasses a wide range of genres and styles, similar to its Japanese counterpart, manga. During the 2010s, the format would undergo a revitalization as a result of webtoons, which provided the medium a smartphone-optimized layout and room to skirt South Korea's censorship standards.[98] Modern Manhwa has extended its reach to many other countries. Korean companies like Naver, Kakao, and Lezhin that host webtoons have expanded globally and have begun to offer their titles in different languages.[99] These comics have branched outside of Korea by access of Webtoons and have created an impact that has resulted in some movie and television show adaptations.

The Korean Manhwa industry has undergone significant changes from 1910 to the present, facing various challenges along the way.[100] In the early years, the impact of Japanese colonial rule and the aftermath of the Korean War led to heavy government intervention from the 1950s to the 1970s.[100] This intervention, driven by concerns for political stability, resulted in censorship and negative societal views, limiting the industry's growth during that period.[100]Fast forward to the 2000s-2010s, a notable shift occurred with the rise of webtoons and educational manhwa. Webtoons, thriving on digitization and online platforms, gained international acclaim.[100] Educational manhwa also played a positive role in children's education, reducing business risks and reshaping the industry.[100]

Globalization and digitization further boosted success, allowing Korean animation series and webtoons to capture diverse audiences worldwide.[100] The need for a business-friendly environment with less government intervention, coupled with a shift in societal perceptions to recognize manhwa as a dynamic and creative industry was the key to this change.[100] Recognizing historical challenges was crucial for crafting effective policies to propel the Korean manhwa industry into a vibrant and globally competitive landscape.[100]

Popularity and impact

edit
 
BTS and US President Joe Biden at the White House in 2022

Sociocultural

edit
 
South Korean K-pop rapper Psy performing "Gangnam Style" in Sydney, Australia in 2013

Korean pop culture is very popular in Taiwan, and an increasing number of Taiwanese are learning Korean language. In Taiwan, where the drama Jewel in the Palace was extremely popular, some fans reportedly underwent cosmetic surgery to look like lead actress Lee Young-ae.[101] The United States Modern Language Association reported that the number of university students learning Korean doubled between 2006 and 2016. In 2020, Korean became the fastest growing foreign language in Mexico and United States.[102] The South Korean Ministry of Education attributed this rise in interest in the Korean language as a product of the Korean Wave.[103] The Korean Wave has influenced a large number of British university students to pursue Korean language degrees.[104]

In India, millennials and members of Generation Z are the most interested in the Korean Wave.[105] On May 31, 2022, BTS visited US President Joe Biden at the White House to discuss the rise in anti-Asian hate crimes.[106]

Economic

edit

In 2004, KBS sold its K-drama Spring Waltz to eight Asian countries during its pre-production stage two years before its release.[107]

The Korean Wave popularized Korean snacks in Kazakhstan, Pakistan, China, Vietnam, Russia, India, and the United States.[108][109] The Korean Wave has resulted in the rise in popularity of Korean ramyeon overseas, with the noodles being prominently featured in K-dramas and films.[110] Product placement, a common feature of K-dramas, has fueled interest in India into a variety of brands featured on these shows.[111] Korean fashion, music, and television have been adopted by teenagers in Kashmir, despite concerns by older generations over the erasure of traditional Kashmiri culture.[112]

Relations with North Korea

edit

In North Korea, the Korean Wave is called the nam-Joseon baram (Korean: 남조선 바람; lit. South Joseon wind).[113] In June 2007, the film Hwang Jin Yi, adapted from a novel by a North Korean author, became the first South Korean production to be made available for public viewing in North Korea.[114]

A 2010 survey of 33 North Korean defectors by the Korea Institute for National Unification found that shows like Winter Sonata played a significant role in shaping the decision of the defectors to flee to the South. The institute also stated that some North Koreans near the Korean Demilitarized Zone reportedly tampered with their televisions to receive signals from South Korean stations, while on the northern border, CDs and DVDs were commonly smuggled in from China.[115] A 2012 survey by the institute of 100 North Korean defectors reported that South Korean media was prevalent among the North Korean elite. It also re-affirmed that North Koreans living near the northern border had the highest degree of access to South Korean entertainment.[116] Notels, a type of Chinese portable media player introduced to North Korea in 2005, have been credited for proliferating Korean media in the North.[117][118]

In October 2012, Supreme Leader Kim Jong Un gave a speech to the Korean People's Army in which he vowed to "extend the fight against the enemy's ideological and cultural infiltration."[119] A US State Department-commissioned study earlier that year concluded that North Korea was "increasingly anxious" to restrict the flow of information, but were struggling to contain the "substantial demand" for South Korean movies and television programs and the "intensely entrepreneurial" smugglers on the Chinese side of the border.[119]

...My happiest moments when I was in North Korea were watching South Korean TV shows. I felt like I was living in that same world as those actors on the show.
—A North Korean defector interviewed by Human Rights Watch[120]

On 15 May 2013, the NGO Human Rights Watch found that "entertainment shows from South Korea are particularly popular and have served to undermine the North Korean government's negative portrayals of South Korea".[121][failed verification]

In 2021, Kim Jong Un called K-pop a vicious cancer that serves to undermine the North Korean government. Kim further warned that South Korean entertainment was having a grave influence on young North Koreans and emphasized the necessity of stamping out "capitalist tendencies". In December 2020 the North Korean government extended the punishment for possessing illegal entertainment from five to fifteen years of hard labor. In a leaked document obtained by Asia Press, Kim Jong Un deemed North Korean women who call their date oppa or "yobo" instead of comrade "perverted". The documents warned that those who were caught using the language would be expelled from their city.[122]

Tourism

edit

The airing of Winter Sonata in Japan led to a rise in tourism to South Korea and dramatically shifted the demographics of Japanese tourism to South Korea, from primarily Japanese men on kisaeng tours to young Japanese women.[123] South Korea's tourism industry has been greatly influenced by the increasing popularity of its media. According to Korean Culture and Information Service (Kocis), yearly tourism figures have increased from 5.32 million visitors in 2000 to 11.03 million visitors in 2023.[citation needed]

The Korean Tourism Organization has recognized the Korean Wave as a significant pull factor for tourists, and launched a tourism campaign in 2014 entitled "Imagine your Korea" that highlighted Korean entertainment.[124] Many fans of Korean television dramas are also motivated to travel to Korea,[125] frequently visiting filming locations like Nami Island, featured in Winter Sonata, and Dae Jang Geum Theme Park.[124] The majority of these tourists were women.[36] According to the KTO, more than 100,000 Indians traveled to South Korea in 2018, with the number of Indian tourists rising steadily each year.[126][127]

Impact of Hallyu on South Korean Tourism

edit

The Korean Wave, or Hallyu, has significantly influenced the global popularity of South Korean culture, particularly through K-dramas and K-pop, driving increased tourism to South Korea. The strategic initiatives implemented by the South Korean government and tourism industry have capitalized on this trend to enhance South Korea's economic landscape and cultural diplomacy on the global stage.

Hallyu-related sectors such as cosmetics, fashion, tourism, and education have seen substantial economic contributions, with cultural exports contributing to a 0.2% increase in South Korea's GDP in 2004, escalating remarkably to $12.3 billion by 2019. These figures underscore the profound impact of the Korean Wave on the economy, largely driven by tourism. This growth is supported by a study showing a robust correlation coefficient of 0.89 for Hallyu products, significantly higher than 0.44 for non-Hallyu products, indicating the strong economic influence of cultural exports.[128]

Recognizing the global appeal of Hallyu, the South Korean government launched the "Visit Korea Year 2023-2024." This initiative features a series of events and promotions to attract tourists, including K-pop concerts, cultural festivals, and significant discounts on travel and accommodations. The Korea Tourism Organization (KTO) also hosts international roadshows and eco-friendly activities to promote cultural and environmental awareness. More details are available on the VISITKOREA website, which provides updates on upcoming events and offers.[129]

Digital technologies also play a crucial role in tourism strategies. Live streaming, for example, has emerged as a strategic tool, significantly influencing viewer engagement through parasocial interactions, where viewers feel a sense of friendship and trust with streamers. This enhances viewer loyalty and encourages more visits, illustrating the shift towards digital engagement in tourism marketing.[130]

Foreign relations

edit
During a press conference with South Korean President Park Geun-hye in May 2013, US President Barack Obama remarked that the Korean Wave was another result of the Miracle on the Han River.[131]

The Korean Wave has been acknowledged by various heads of state and government, including Chinese paramount leader Hu Jintao[132][133] and Premier Wen Jiabao,[134] US President Barack Obama,[131] Indian President Ram Nath Kovind,[135] and Australian Prime Minister Julia Gillard.[136] The phenomenon has also been acknowledged by UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon,[137] the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs,[138] US Secretary of State John Kerry,[139] Afghan Deputy Foreign Minister Meerwais Nab,[140] New Zealand Deputy Secretary of Foreign Affairs and Trade Andrea Smith,[141] the French Ministry for Europe and Foreign Affairs,[142] the German Federal Foreign Office,[143] and UK Foreign Office Minister Hugo Swire.[144] A 2018–2019 survey conducted by the Korean Culture and Information Service found that the Korean Wave was a key factor in global perceptions of South Korea.[145]

Taiwan

edit

The Korean Wave positively impacted perceptions of South Korea in Taiwan.[146][147] Taiwanese people's favorable impression of South Korea continues to increase significantly, which also makes the relationship between South Korea and Taiwan very close.[148][149]

India

edit

Korean culture has become increasingly popular in India,[150][151] particularly in the northeast, where people feel somewhat alienated from the rest of India and have some similarities to Koreans.[152] India and Korea have hosted cultural events at each other's embassies, with their leaders looking to increase cultural ties.[153]

Japan

edit

The Korean Wave, began to gain traction in Japan around the late 1990s and early 2000s. This initial surge was largely due to efforts by Japanese Prime Minister Obuchi Keizo and Korean President Kim Dae-jung, who aimed to foster a "future-oriented relationship" between the two countries. As part of this initiative, South Korea lifted its unilateral restrictions on the import of Japanese cultural products in 1998, leading to increased cultural exchanges between the two nations. A relevant policies, which was the Open Door Policy implemented by South Korea from 1998 to 2004 played a significant role in facilitating the spread of hallyu in Japan. This policy aimed to liberalize South Korea's cultural industry and promote cultural exports.[154] On November 2, 2021, data released by KOCCA, underscores a remarkable surge in the export of Korean video content to Japan. In 2021, the export value soared to $1.81 billion (approximately 2.46 trillion won), representing a substantial 50 percent increase from the previous year's figure of $1.21 billion (approximately 1.64 trillion won). This significant growth reflects the escalating popularity and demand for Korean video content within the Japanese market.[155]

China

edit

Throughout 2016 and 2017, China implemented various restrictions on Korean cultural and economic imports as retaliation for the installation of the THAAD missile defense system, which it considers a risk to its national security.[156][157] During this time, many Chinese-Korean television productions were paused[158] and Korean television programs, the streaming of K-pop videos, and imports of various Korean cosmetics were restricted by the government.[159] A number of Korean artists had their visas denied and appearances canceled, although the Chinese government officially stated that their visa policy had not changed.[158][160] In March 2017, the China National Tourism Administration issued a ban on group tours to South Korea by Chinese travel agencies.[161] These bans resulted in significant financial losses for the South Korean entertainment industry with share prices of SM Entertainment falling 18 percent, a loss of $150 million, and share prices of YG Entertainment falling 32 percent, a loss of $230 million.[162] On 31 October 2017, the two governments announced a settlement regarding the THAAD dispute. Following the agreement, many large Chinese online video platforms began importing Korean dramas again, Chinese travel agencies restarted group tours to South Korea, and Korean bands made appearances in Chinese TV shows.[163]

Middle East and North Africa

edit

Since the mid-2000s, Iran, Morocco and Egypt and Algeria have emerged as major consumers of Korean culture.[164] Following the success of Korean dramas in the Middle East & North Africa, the Korean Overseas Information Service made Winter Sonata available with Arabic subtitles and the program was broadcast on several state-run Egyptian television networks. The Korean government's support for the Korean cultural exports in the Middle East are part of greater efforts to improve the country's image in the region.[165]

The Middle East Broadcasting Channel (MBC4) played a major role in increasing the Korean Wave's popularity in the Middle East and North Africa. Beginning in 2012, MBC4 hosted a series of Korean dramas, including Boys Over Flowers, You're Beautiful, Dream High and Coffee Prince. The imports of these programs were sometimes criticized out of the fear they would lead to Islamic youth to abandon traditional values.[166]

Egypt

edit

Autumn in My Heart, one of the earliest Korean dramas brought over to the Middle East, was broadcast after five months of "persistent negotiations" between the South Korean embassy and an Egyptian state-run broadcasting company. Perceptions of South Korea in Egypt, which were undermined by the country's involvement in the Iraq War, were positively impacted following the screening of Autumn in My Heart in the country.[167]

Iran

edit
 
South Korean actor Song Il-gook at a press conference in Tehran on 18 August 2009

A number of K-dramas have been aired by Iran's state broadcaster, Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting (IRIB) in prime-time slots. Unlike Western productions, South Korean programs tend to satisfy the conservative criteria set by the Iranian Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance.[168][169] In October 2012, representatives for the IRIB visited South Korea to visit filming locations in an effort to strengthen "cultural affinities" between the two countries and to seek avenues for further cooperation between KBS and IRIB.[170][171]

Israel and Palestine

edit

Some commentators[who?] have hoped that the popularity of Korean culture across Israel and Palestine[172] may serve as a bridge over the Israeli–Palestinian conflict.[173] The Hebrew University of Jerusalem reported that some Israeli and Palestinian K-pop fans see themselves as "cultural missionaries" and actively introduce K-pop to their friends and relatives, further spreading the Korean Wave within their communities.[172][174][175]

Criticism

edit

In parts of China and Japan, the Korean Wave has been met with backlash and comparisons to cultural imperialism.[176][177] In China and Japan, the Korean Wave has frequently been described as a "cultural invasion" and restrictions have limited the number of Korean TV dramas shown to Chinese audiences.[43][176][178] At the Tai Ke Rock Concert in August 2005, a musician performed the racist and misogynistic rap "The Invasion of the Korean Wave" attacking actor Bae Yong-joon, female Taiwanese musicians, and the Korean Wave.[179] In addition, backlash to K-pop is common on the internet, where it is criticized for superficiality, heteronomy, or vulgarity.[180]

Backlash against the Korean Wave can be rooted in nationalism or historical conflicts.[181][182] The K-pop industry has been criticized for its promotion of sexualized Asian stereotypes.[177]

Mistreatment of artists

edit

The South Korean entertainment industry has faced repeated claims of mistreatment towards its musical artists.[183][184][185] [186][187][188][189] A series of high-profile suicides by Korean actors and idols highlighted the industry's harsh working conditions.[190][191]

Historical accuracy

edit

Korean historical dramas have been increasingly scrutinized by Korean viewers for historical negationism and otherwise inaccurate portrayals of Korean history, leading to boycotts and the cancellation of shows such as Snowdrop and Joseon Exorcist.[192][193]

Cultural and moral opposition

edit

K-pop boy bands and their fans have been the targets of a variety of racist, misogynistic, and homophobic attacks purporting that the bands promote homosexuality and feminine men.[194] In February 2021, Matthias Matuschik, a radio presenter for the German radio station Bayern 3, came under attack for declaring BTS were "some crappy virus that hopefully there will be a vaccine for soon."[195] On 1 September 2021, a billboard of Jungkook from BTS was taken down in Pakistan after the billboard purportedly received complaints for promoting homosexuality and using the word ARMY, in conflict with the Pakistan Army.[196] In November 2021, group calling themselves "Team Copyright" based in Bangladesh took down a number of Twitter accounts associated with the BTS fandom through false copyright claims over allegations that the band promotes "atheism and homosexuality."[197]

K-pop and K-pop idols have been criticized for promoting unhealthy attitudes around weight in Indian adolescents.[198]

Japan

edit

Anti-Korean sentiment in Japan has sparked a number of far-right nationalist street protests demonstrating against the import of South Korean entertainment products.[181] The anti-Korean comic, Manga Kenkanryu ("Hating the Korean Wave") was published on 26 July 2005 and was widely sold in Japan. According to a Korea Times article posted in February 2014, "Experts and observers in Korea and Japan say while attendance at the rallies is still small and such extreme actions are far from entering the mainstream of Japanese politics, the hostile demonstrations have grown in size and frequency in recent months."[199]

See also

edit

Citations

edit
  1. ^ Parc, Jimmyn (9 August 2022). "Korea's cultural exports and soft power: Understanding the true scale of this trend". Asialink. University of Melbourne. Archived from the original on 4 March 2023. Retrieved 21 March 2023.
  2. ^ Walsh 2014, p. 21.
  3. ^ Jin 2016, p. 5.
  4. ^ Shin 2014, p. 419.
  5. ^ a b Kim, Ji-myung (3 August 2012). "Serious turn for 'hallyu 3.0'". The Korea Times. Archived from the original on 14 February 2022. Retrieved 17 March 2013.
  6. ^ a b Leung 2008, p. 59.
  7. ^ a b K-drama: A New TV Genre with Global Appeal. Korean Culture. Korean Culture and Information Service. 1 December 2011. ISBN 978-89-7375-167-9. Archived from the original on 14 February 2022. Retrieved 14 February 2022.
  8. ^ Kim 2013, p. 4.
  9. ^ Oh 2014, p. 53.
  10. ^ Kim 2013, p. 1.
  11. ^ Park 2020, p. 1.
  12. ^ Anderson 2014, p. 119.
  13. ^ Sang-Hun, Choe (3 November 2021). "From BTS to 'Squid Game': How South Korea Became a Cultural Juggernaut". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 9 November 2021. Retrieved 16 March 2023.
  14. ^ a b Fuhr 2015, p. 45.
  15. ^ Fuhr 2015, p. 47.
  16. ^ Fuhr 2015, p. 47–48.
  17. ^ a b Fuhr 2015, p. 48.
  18. ^ a b c d Shim 2008, p. 23.
  19. ^ a b Chua & Iwabuchi 2008, pp. 3–4.
  20. ^ a b Chua & Iwabuchi 2008, p. 4.
  21. ^ a b Jung, Eun-Young (20 September 2007). Transnational Cultural Traffic in Northeast Asia: The "Presence" of Japan in Korea's Popular Music Culture (PhD thesis). University of Pittsburgh. Archived from the original on 22 March 2023. Retrieved 22 March 2023.
  22. ^ Onishi, Norimitsu (28 June 2005). "Roll Over, Godzilla: Korea Rules". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 12 November 2020. Retrieved 30 January 2022.
  23. ^ Oh, Ingyu; Lee, Hyo-Jung (May 2014). "K-pop in Korea: How the Pop Music Industry Is Changing a Post-Developmental Society". Cross-Currents: East Asian History and Culture Review. 3 (1). University of Hawaiʻi Press: 72–93. doi:10.1353/ach.2014.0007. ISSN 2158-9674 – via Project Muse. the Ministry of Culture, Sports, and Tourism is nonetheless convinced of Hallyu's monetary contribution to Korea's "export-led economic development," a catchphrase that the economic ministries use to justify their budgetary increase.
  24. ^ a b c d Ju, Hyejung (30 July 2018). "The Korean Wave and Korean Dramas". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Communication. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190228613.013.715. ISBN 978-0-19-022861-3. Archived from the original on 16 April 2023. Retrieved 18 March 2023.
  25. ^ a b c d Shim 2008, p. 25.
  26. ^ Cicchelli & Octobre 2021.
  27. ^ Lee 2008, p. 177.
  28. ^ Jin 2016, p. 23.
  29. ^ Shim 2008, p. 25–26.
  30. ^ a b Shim 2008, p. 26.
  31. ^ Huang, Shuling (2011). "Nation-branding and Transnational Consumption: Japan-mania and the Korean Wave in Taiwan". Media, Culture & Society. 33 (1): 3–18. doi:10.1177/0163443710379670. S2CID 144408953.
  32. ^ Chua & Iwabuchi 2008, pp. 5–6.
  33. ^ Chua & Iwabuchi 2008, p. 6.
  34. ^ Kuwahara 2014, p. 213.
  35. ^ Lee, Claire (30 December 2011). "Remembering 'Winter Sonata,' the Start of Hallyu". The Korea Herald. Archived from the original on 6 January 2013. Retrieved 26 December 2012.
  36. ^ a b Mōri 2008, p. 130–131.
  37. ^ Chua & Iwabuchi 2008, p. 9.
  38. ^ a b Faiola, Anthony (31 August 2006). "Japanese Women Catch the 'Korean Wave'". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 21 January 2011. Retrieved 18 March 2013.
  39. ^ Kember, Findlay (8 May 2011). "Remote Indian State Hooked on Korean Pop Culture". AFP. Archived from the original on 15 May 2011.
  40. ^ Banakar, Pushkar (4 November 2018). "Korean, English movies welcome in Manipur, Bollywood is not". The New Indian Express. Archived from the original on 1 June 2022. Retrieved 1 June 2022.
  41. ^ Chua & Iwabuchi 2008, p. 7.
  42. ^ a b Jin 2016, p. 24.
  43. ^ a b Maliangkay, Roald (2006). "When the Korean Wave Ripples" (PDF). IIAS Newsletter. Vol. 42. International Institute for Asian Studies. p. 15. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 February 2022. Retrieved 14 February 2022.
  44. ^ Leung 2008, pp. 65–67.
  45. ^ Kim, Bo-young (31 March 2006). "The Future, After the Korean Screen Quota". The KNU Times. Archived from the original on 4 November 2014.
  46. ^ Lee, Hyung-Sook (August 2006). Between Local and Global: The Hong Kong Film Syndrome in South Korea (PhD). USC Libraries. p. 48. doi:10.25549/usctheses-c16-584419.
  47. ^ a b c Shim 2008, p. 16.
  48. ^ Choi 2010, p. 16.
  49. ^ Power, John (17 September 2012). "What Is the Future of Korean Film?". The Korea Herald. Archived from the original on 5 January 2014. Retrieved 6 January 2014.
  50. ^ Shim 2008, p. 16–17.
  51. ^ Shim, Doobo (June 2011). "Waxing the Korean Wave" (PDF). Asia Research Institute. Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 January 2022. Retrieved 17 March 2013.
  52. ^ Shim 2008, p. 17–19.
  53. ^ Shim 2008, p. 19.
  54. ^ Shim 2008, p. 19–21.
  55. ^ Shim 2008, p. 19–20.
  56. ^ Shim 2008, p. 20.
  57. ^ a b Cicchelli & Octobre 2021, p. 13.
  58. ^ Cicchelli & Octobre 2021, p. 12.
  59. ^ Kim 2021, p. 38–39.
  60. ^ Kim 2021, p. 39.
  61. ^ Robert Michael Poole (20 March 2009). "No constrictions on BoA's ambitions". The Japan Times. Archived from the original on 30 December 2021. Retrieved 29 December 2021.
  62. ^ Freedman, Alisa (18 April 2023). Introducing Japanese Popular Culture. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-000-86417-5.
  63. ^ Kuwahara 2014, p. 215.
  64. ^ Jin 2016, p. 3.
  65. ^ a b Jin 2015, p. 58–59.
  66. ^ Jin 2016, p. 6–7.
  67. ^ Do, Je-hae (20 December 2012). "Park to Put Policy Priority on Culture". The Korea Times. Archived from the original on 2 February 2022. Retrieved 24 March 2013.
  68. ^ Yoon, Kyong (2022). Diasporic Hallyu : the Korean wave in Korean Canadian youth culture. East Asian Popular Culture. Cham, Switzerland. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-94964-8. ISBN 978-3-030-94964-8. OCLC 1308799017. S2CID 247648138. Archived from the original on 16 April 2023. Retrieved 10 March 2023.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  69. ^ Jin 2016, p. 172.
  70. ^ a b Cicchelli & Octobre 2021, p. 16.
  71. ^ a b c d Song, Sooho (2020). "The Evolution of the Korean Wave: How Is the Third Generation Different from Previous Ones?". Korea Observer. 51 (1): 125–150. doi:10.29152/KOIKS.2020.51.1.125. S2CID 216401610. Archived from the original on 7 March 2023. Retrieved 7 March 2023.
  72. ^ a b Jin 2020.
  73. ^ Song, Seung-hyun (30 January 2021). "Hallyu Fans Consume More Korean Content amid COVID-19 Pandemic in 2020: Survey". The Korea Herald. Archived from the original on 8 February 2021. Retrieved 9 February 2021.
  74. ^ Brown, August (29 April 2012). "K-pop Enters American Pop Consciousness". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 30 October 2020. Retrieved 24 March 2013.
  75. ^ Harris, Gareth (7 July 2021). "South Korea's Rapid Rise to Global Pop Cultural Dominance Will Be Explored in New Victoria & Albert Museum Exhibition". The Art Newspaper. Archived from the original on 7 October 2021. Retrieved 8 July 2021.
  76. ^ "Inside 'Hallyu!', The V&A's Playful Exhibition Celebrating Korean Fashion & Culture". British Vogue. 24 September 2022. Archived from the original on 7 March 2023. Retrieved 7 March 2023.
  77. ^ "'Pachinko' author Min Jin Lee credits Korean Wave for her success". The Korea Times. 8 August 2022. Archived from the original on 17 August 2022. Retrieved 17 August 2022.
  78. ^ a b c d e Jin 2016.
  79. ^ a b Kim 2013, p. 2.
  80. ^ Oh, David C. (2017). "K-pop Fans React: Hybridity and the White Celebrity-fan on YouTube". International Journal of Communication. 11: 2270–2287. S2CID 59365830.
  81. ^ Lee & Kuwahara 2014.
  82. ^ Lyan, Irina; Zidani, Sulafa; Shifman, Limor (2015). "When Gangnam Hits the Middle East: Re-makes as Identity Practice". Asian Communication Research. 12 (2): 10–31. doi:10.20879/acr.2015.12.2.10. S2CID 147486091. Archived from the original on 9 April 2022. Retrieved 12 December 2018.
  83. ^ Lah, Kyung (5 February 2013). K-pop Goes Global (Video). CNN. Archived from the original on 2 August 2016. Retrieved 4 March 2013.
  84. ^ Yoon, Hyeon-jeong (25 February 2024). "[윤현정의 컬처&] 글로벌 K-아트 '고전예술'에 관심을" [[Hyeonjeong Yoon’s Culture&] Global interest in K-art and 'classical art']. Asia Today (in Korean). Retrieved 26 February 2024.
  85. ^ "Gangnam Style Hits One Billion Views on YouTube". BBC News. 21 December 2012. Archived from the original on 3 November 2019. Retrieved 21 December 2019.
  86. ^ Palat, Lakshana (31 May 2022). "K-Pop in India: Sriya Lenka's success has been a long time in the making". The Indian Express. Archived from the original on 1 June 2022. Retrieved 1 June 2022.
  87. ^ Roy, Ratan Kumar; Das, Biswajit, eds. (2022). Korean Wave in South Asia : Transcultural Flow, Fandom and Identity. Ratan Kumar Roy, Biswajit Das. Singapore. doi:10.1007/978-981-16-8710-5. ISBN 978-981-16-8710-5. OCLC 1334101884. S2CID 250134516. Retrieved 8 March 2023.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  88. ^ Shim, Sun-ah (16 December 2021). "From 'Squid Game' to BTS, 2021 Is Most Memorable Year for Korean Culture". Yonhap News Agency. Archived from the original on 19 December 2021. Retrieved 18 December 2021.
  89. ^ Gibson, Jenna (20 April 2018). "Hallyu 3.0: The Era of K-pop Collaborations". KEI. Archived from the original on 27 November 2021. Retrieved 1 February 2022.
  90. ^ Jeon, Young-sun; Yang, Haley (5 April 2022). "As K-pop goes global, Koreans fall behind when it comes to consumption". Korea JoongAng Daily. Archived from the original on 11 April 2022. Retrieved 12 April 2022.
  91. ^ Kim 2021, p. 76.
  92. ^ "Iranians Hooked on Korean TV Drama". GlobalPost. 20 December 2009. Archived from the original on 31 January 2022. Retrieved 11 November 2014.
  93. ^ Kwon, Mee-yoo (30 August 2011). "Int'l Fans Visit Korea for Seoul Drama Awards". The Korea Times. Archived from the original on 2 February 2022. Retrieved 17 March 2013. The hit Korean drama 'Jumong' was broadcast in Romania earlier this year, attracting some 800,000 viewers to the small screen.
  94. ^ Song, Sang-ho (10 August 2011). "Korea's Mark on an Expectation-defying Iran". The Korea Herald. Archived from the original on 23 August 2014. Retrieved 17 February 2013. The Korean wave, or hallyu, has also made significant forays into Iran. Korean period dramas, 'Jumong' in particular, were smash hits. Jumong – the founding monarch of Korea's ancient Goguryeo kingdom (37 B.C.–A.D. 668) – has become the most popular TV drama representing Korea here, with its viewer ratings hovering around 80 to 90 percent.
  95. ^ Frater, Patrick (1 October 2020). "Led by BTS, 'Parasite,' '#Alive' and More, South Korea's Entertainment Biz Is Taking the World by Storm". Variety. Archived from the original on 3 March 2021. Retrieved 25 April 2021.
  96. ^ Bhatt, Shephali (17 November 2020). "How K-pop and Korean drama had their biggest breakthrough in India amid the pandemic". The Economic Times. Archived from the original on 31 October 2020. Retrieved 14 May 2022.
  97. ^ N. B. (10 February 2020). ""Parasite" becomes the first foreign-language film to win Best Picture". The Economist. Archived from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 26 March 2023.
  98. ^ a b McKinney, DW (24 October 2020). "Riding the Wave: The Steady Rise of Korean Manhwa". Los Angeles Review of Books. Archived from the original on 12 March 2023. Retrieved 18 March 2023.
  99. ^ "What Is Webtoon? Rising of New Korean Culture Wave". Gyeonggi-do. 3 April 2020. Archived from the original on 17 August 2021. Retrieved 24 August 2021.
  100. ^ a b c d e f g h Parc, Jimmyn; Park, Hongjin; Kim, Kyuchan (1 July 2023). "The Lagged Development of the Korean Manhwa Industry From 1910 to the Present:: The Formation of Negative Perceptions". Archiv orientální. 91 (1): 169–196. doi:10.47979/aror.j.91.1.169-196. ISSN 0044-8699. S2CID 259728143.
  101. ^ Shim, Doobo (2006). "Hybridity and the Rise of Korean Popular Culture in Asia". Media, Culture & Society. 28 (1): 25–44. doi:10.1177/0163443706059278. S2CID 204327176.
  102. ^ Wang, Hye-Sook; Pyun, Danielle O. (16 June 2020). "Hallyu and Korean Language Learning: Gender and Ethnicity Factors". The Korean Language in America. 24 (2): 30–59. doi:10.5325/korelangamer.24.2.0030. ISSN 2332-0346. S2CID 238013426. Archived from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 26 March 2023.
  103. ^ Choi, Ye-na (15 March 2021). "Nearly 160,000 Students Overseas Learned Korean in 2020". The Dong-a Ilbo. Archived from the original on 9 February 2022. Retrieved 15 March 2021.
  104. ^ Hall, Rachel; Otte, Jedidajah (30 December 2021). "Anime and K-pop Fuel Language-learning Boom". Taipei Times. Archived from the original on 7 February 2022. Retrieved 7 February 2021.
  105. ^ Kandula, Vasavi (22 March 2022). "From K-Pop To K-Drama: How Indian Teens Can't Get Enough Of The Korean Wave". IndiaTimes. Archived from the original on 12 May 2022. Retrieved 12 May 2022.
  106. ^ Blair, Elizabeth (31 May 2022). "K-Pop stars BTS went to the White House to talk about anti-Asian hate crimes". NPR. Archived from the original on 4 June 2022. Retrieved 25 June 2022.
  107. ^ Kim, Jeongmee, ed. (2014). Reading Asian Television Drama: Crossing Borders and Breaking Boundaries. I.B. Tauris. doi:10.5040/9780755697274. ISBN 978-0-7556-9727-4.
  108. ^ Song, Hye-jin (2 October 2021). "Korean Snacks Boom Around the World Thanks to K-pop Craze". The Chosun Ilbo. Archived from the original on 25 December 2021. Retrieved 27 December 2021.
  109. ^ Song, Hye-jin (25 December 2021). "Korean Food Makers Target More Populous Markets". The Chosun Ilbo. Archived from the original on 25 December 2021. Retrieved 27 December 2021.
  110. ^ Choon, Chang May (27 February 2021). "Latest Chart Topper in the Korean Wave: Ramyeon or Instant Noodles". The Straits Times. Archived from the original on 1 March 2021. Retrieved 3 March 2021.
  111. ^ "K-dramas and Now K-products: Indian Viewers Get 'K' Brand Conscious". The Indian Express. Press Trust of India. 18 January 2022. Archived from the original on 21 January 2022. Retrieved 21 January 2022.
  112. ^ Khan, Waqas; Basit, Parray (8 September 2022). "Parents in Kashmir Worry That K-pop's Influence Will Lead to Cultural Erasure. Teens Are Fully Embracing the Hallyu Wave". Muslim Girl. Archived from the original on 11 September 2022. Retrieved 11 September 2022.
  113. ^ 김, 주환 (25 December 2021). "北 장마당 증가...한류 콘텐츠 은밀하게 확산" [North Korean Markets Grow...and Hallyu Content Spreads in Secret]. YTN (in Korean). Archived from the original on 10 February 2022. Retrieved 21 February 2020.
  114. ^ Lee, Chang-Kyun; Bonny, Jinhee; Choi, Young Yoon (17 July 2007). "North Korea Cracks Down on 'Korean Wave' of Illicit TV". Radio Free Asia. Translated by Mudie, Luisetta. Archived from the original on 25 October 2014. Retrieved 23 March 2013.
  115. ^ Kang, Seongbin (29 April 2011). "'Korean Wave' Set to Swamp North Korea, Academics Say". Reuters. Archived from the original on 22 December 2015. Retrieved 18 March 2013.
  116. ^ "Winds of Unification Still Blowing ..." Daily NK. 28 June 2012. Archived from the original on 29 May 2019. Retrieved 22 March 2013.
  117. ^ "Cheap Chinese EVD Player Spreads S. Korean Culture in N. Korea". Yonhap News Agency. 22 October 2013. Archived from the original on 10 February 2022. Retrieved 2 April 2015.
  118. ^ Lee, Joon-seung (22 October 2013). "Spread of Portable EVD Players Fueling 'Korean Wave' in N. Korea: Expert". Yonhap News Agency. Archived from the original on 10 February 2022. Retrieved 2 April 2015.
  119. ^ a b Sullivan, Tim (31 December 2012). "North Korea Cracks Down on Knowledge Smugglers". Salon. AP. Archived from the original on 22 March 2013. Retrieved 23 March 2013.
  120. ^ "North Korea: Stop Crackdown on Economic 'Crimes'". Human Rights Watch. 15 May 2013. Archived from the original on 8 June 2013. Retrieved 16 May 2013.
  121. ^ Schiff, Randy (8 June 2020). "Streaming: From Unstable Worlds Come a Love Story, Civil War with Zombies and Government Thriller". The Buffalo News. Archived from the original on 3 February 2021. Retrieved 7 December 2020.
  122. ^ Choe, Sang-Hun (11 June 2021). "Kim Jong-un Calls K-pop a 'Vicious Cancer' in the New Culture War". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 17 June 2021. Retrieved 17 June 2021.
  123. ^ Hirata 2008, p. 143–148.
  124. ^ a b Han, Hee-Joo; Lee, Jae-Sub (2008). "A Study on the KBS TV Drama Winter Sonata and Its Impact on Korea's Hallyu Tourism Development". Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing. 24 (2–3): 115–126. doi:10.1080/10548400802092593. S2CID 154926778.
  125. ^ Kim, Seongseop (Sam); Kim, Sangkyun (Sean); Heo, Cindy (Yoonjoung) (2015). "Assessment of TV Drama/Film Production Towns as a Rural Tourism Growth Engine". Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research. 20 (7): 730–760. doi:10.1080/10941665.2014.927378. S2CID 153548291.
  126. ^ Wadhwa, Sulakshna (15 April 2019). "Korea Festival in Mumbai is Offering a Window into Korean Culture". The Financial Express. Archived from the original on 8 October 2021. Retrieved 14 February 2021.
  127. ^ Cariappa, Neha (10 July 2020). "An Emerging Market for Hallyu: The Growing Indian Fan Base". KEI. Archived from the original on 15 November 2020. Retrieved 28 September 2020.
  128. ^ Fahrisa, T. R. (2022). "Exports Driven by Hallyu Increasing South Korea's Economic Growth - Cultural Diplomacy Approach". Jurnal Hubungan Internasional. 15 (1): 20–36.
  129. ^ KTO, Korea Tourism Organization. "[KTO] Visit Korea Year 2023-2024 Begins : VISITKOREA". [KTO] Visit Korea Year 2023-2024 Begins. Retrieved 24 April 2024.
  130. ^ Kim, M. (2023). "Parasocial Interactions in Digital Tourism: Attributes of Live Streamers and Viewer Engagement Dynamics in South Korea". Behavioral Sciences. 13 (11): 953.
  131. ^ a b Obama, Barack; Park, Geun-hye (7 May 2013). "Remarks by President Obama and President Park of South Korea in a Joint Press Conference". The White House. National Archives. Archived from the original on 23 January 2017. Retrieved 7 May 2013.
  132. ^ Wong, Tze Chin (2010). "South Korea–China Mutual Perceptions: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly". In Straub, David (ed.). SAIS U.S.–Korea 2009 Yearbook (PDF). U.S.–Korea Institute at SAIS. pp. 11–27. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 April 2015.
  133. ^ Tsai, Ting-I (22 November 2005). "Korea Swallows Its Pride in Chinese Kimchi War". Asia Times Online. Archived from the original on 24 November 2005.
  134. ^ 温家宝总理接受韩国新闻媒体联合采访 [Premier Wen Jiabao Accepts a Joint Interview with South Korean News Media]. 新华网 [Xinhuanet] (in Chinese). 5 April 2007. Archived from the original on 8 April 2007. 对于'韩流'这种文化现象，中国人民特别是年轻人都很喜欢，中国政府会继续鼓励包括'韩流'在内的两国文化交流活动。
  135. ^ "Speech by the president of India, Shri Ram Nath Kovind at the Banquet hosted in Honour of his excellency Mr Moon Jae-In, the President of the Republic of Korea". Press Information Bureau, Government of India. 10 July 2018. Archived from the original on 19 May 2022. Retrieved 14 May 2022.
  136. ^ Gillard, Julia (26 March 2012). "'Australia and Korea: Partners and Friends', Speech to Yonsei University, Seoul". PM Transcripts. Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet. Archived from the original on 11 February 2017. Retrieved 10 February 2017.
  137. ^ Ban, Ki-moon (30 October 2012). "The United Nations and Korea: Together, Building the Future We Want". United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. United Nations. Archived from the original on 25 October 2013.
  138. ^ "Asia and the Pacific". Diplomatic Bluebook 2005 (PDF). Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Japan. 2005. pp. 18–61. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 February 2022. Retrieved 14 February 2022.
  139. ^ Kerry, John (13 August 2013). "Video Recording for the Republic of Korea's Independence Day". U.S. Department of State. Office of Website Management. Archived from the original on 21 January 2017. Retrieved 21 January 2017.
  140. ^ Kwon, Mee-yoo (12 April 2021). "Korea's Effort in Afghan Reconstruction Recognized". The Korea Times. Archived from the original on 8 May 2021. Retrieved 10 May 2021.
  141. ^ Smith, Andrea (21 November 2012). "Korea "Year of Friendship" Keynote Address". New Zealand Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade. Archived from the original on 10 February 2013.
  142. ^ "La France et la République de Corée" [France and the Republic of Korea]. France Diplomatie (in French). Ministère des Affaires étrangères et du Développement international. n.d. Archived from the original on 22 December 2015. La culture populaire coréenne connaît un succès grandissant à travers le monde. Ce phénomène porte le nom de « Hallyu », ou « vague coréenne ».
  143. ^ "Kultur- und Bildungspolitik". Auswärtiges Amt. 3 March 2014. Archived from the original on 23 October 2014. Retrieved 23 October 2014.
  144. ^ Swire, Hugo (23 November 2012). "Anglo-Korean Society Dinner". Government Digital Service. Archived from the original on 9 July 2017. Retrieved 19 December 2012.
  145. ^ Yoon, So-yeon (4 February 2020). "Around the World, Hallyu Boosts the Image of Korea". Korea JoongAng Daily. Archived from the original on 14 May 2021. Retrieved 28 September 2020.
  146. ^ Sung, Sang-Yeon (2010). "Constructing a New Image. Hallyu in Taiwan". European Journal of East Asian Studies. 9 (1): 25–45. doi:10.1163/156805810X517652. S2CID 144408953.
  147. ^ Rawnsley, Ming-Yeh T. (2014). "'Korean Wave' in Taiwan: The Cultural Representation of Identities and Food in Korean TV Drama, Dae Jang Geum". In Kim, Jeongmee (ed.). Reading Asian Television Drama: Crossing Borders and Breaking Boundaries. I.B. Tauris. pp. 215–238. doi:10.5040/9780755697274.ch-009. ISBN 978-0-7556-9727-4. S2CID 231013529.
  148. ^ Hahm, Sung Deuk (2021). "The Impact of the Korean Wave on South Korea–Taiwan Relations". Asian Survey. 61 (2): 217–240. doi:10.1525/as.2021.61.2.217. S2CID 234871319.
  149. ^ Chua & Iwabuchi 2008, p. 10.
  150. ^ www.ETBrandEquity.com. "How the Korean culture wave is submerging Indian audiences - ET BrandEquity". ETBrandEquity.com. Retrieved 2 May 2024.
  151. ^ "Korean dramas and culture are taking India by storm". The Times of India. 29 August 2023. ISSN 0971-8257. Retrieved 2 May 2024.
  152. ^ Das, Bijoyeta. "Manipur: A part of India where Korea rules". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 2 May 2024.
  153. ^ Kumar, Sanjay (10 October 2023). "Indian Embassy holds Sarang festival to promote cultural exchange". The Korea Herald. Retrieved 2 May 2024.
  154. ^ Wang, Linbin (6 January 2023). "How Has the 'Korean Wave' Impacted Japan-South Korea Relations?". thediplomat.com. Retrieved 8 April 2024.
  155. ^ Pyo, Kyung-min (14 November 2023). "[INTERVIEW] Korean culture becomes part of daily life in Japan as hallyu marks 20th anniversary". The Korea Times. Retrieved 8 April 2024.
  156. ^ Smith, Nicola (4 December 2016). "South Korea's 'K-pop' Stars Caught in the Crossfire of Diplomatic Spat with China". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 8 November 2018. Retrieved 30 October 2018.
  157. ^ Jozuka, Emiko; Han, Sol (23 February 2017). "Why South Korean Companies, Entertainers Are Getting Cold Shoulder in China". CNN. Archived from the original on 19 January 2019. Retrieved 18 October 2018.
  158. ^ a b Qin, Amy; Choe, Sang-Hun (6 August 2016). "South Korean Missile Defense Deal Appears to Sour China's Taste for K-pop". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 18 September 2017. Retrieved 7 November 2018.
  159. ^ Maizland, Lindsay (7 March 2017). "The Surprising Reason Why China Is Blocking South Korean Music Videos and TV". Vox. Archived from the original on 7 July 2018. Retrieved 6 November 2018.
  160. ^ Sanchez, Daniel (6 March 2017). "Lee Kwang Soo, BTS, EXO in Trouble After China–Korean Conflict". Digital Music News. Archived from the original on 6 March 2017. Retrieved 30 October 2018.
  161. ^ Zhou, Laura (20 December 2017). "Promises, Promises ... but Still No End to China's Ban on Group Tours to South Korea". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 8 November 2018. Retrieved 29 October 2021.
  162. ^ Kil, Sonia (24 August 2017). "China's Blockade of Cultural Korea Marks Troublesome Anniversary". Variety. Archived from the original on 28 August 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
  163. ^ Hong, Soon-do (2 November 2017). "China Virtually Ends Hallyu Ban". HuffPost. Archived from the original on 12 April 2019. Retrieved 18 October 2018.
  164. ^ Xha, Farhaa (25 July 2010). "The 'Asian Wave' Hits Saudi Arabia". Saudi Gazette. Archived from the original on 6 January 2014. Egypt and Iran has been the center of the 'hallyu' phenomena in the Middle East for a few years now. While Egypt went crazy after the dramas 'Autumn in my Heart' and 'Winter Sonata,' Iran went gaga when its state television aired 'Emperor of the Sea' and 'Jewel in the Palace'.
  165. ^ Nye & Kim 2013, p. 34.
  166. ^ Kraidy, Marwan M. (2010). Reality Television and Arab Politics: Contention in Public Life. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511814259. ISBN 978-0-511-67529-4. S2CID 128785183. p. 138: Critics of Star Academy fear that the learning rituals embedded in the show would lead Kuwaiti youth to abandon their traditions wholesale in order to adopt Western morality wholesale.
  167. ^ "'Autumn in My Heart' Syndrome in Egypt". KBS. 3 November 2004. Archived from the original on 6 January 2014.
  168. ^ Chung, Ah-young (29 July 2011). "Book Probes Transnational Identity of 'Hallyu'". The Korea Times. Archived from the original on 5 February 2022. Retrieved 22 April 2013. Korean television dramas reinforce traditional values of Confucianism that Iranians find more closely aligned to Islamic culture, implying that cultural proximity contributes to the Islamic Korean wave. 'Reflecting traditional family values, Korean culture is deemed "a filter for Western values" in Iran,' the article says.
  169. ^ Amiri, Mitra (19 January 2011). "Foreign Broadcasts, DVDs Challenge Iran Grip on TV". Reuters. Archived from the original on 12 January 2016. Retrieved 22 April 2013.
  170. ^ "IRIB Director Visits Location of South Korean TV Series Popular in Iran". Tehran Times. 19 October 2012. Archived from the original on 28 October 2012.
  171. ^ "IRIB Director Meets South Korean Media Officials". IRIB World Service. 17 October 2012. Archived from the original on 27 October 2012.
  172. ^ a b Otmazgin, Nissim; Lyan, Irina (2014). "Hallyu Across the Desert: K-pop Fandom in Israel and Palestine". Cross-Currents: East Asian History and Culture Review. 3 (1): 32–55. doi:10.1353/ach.2014.0008. S2CID 143698495.
  173. ^ "Middle East: Korean Pop 'Brings Hope for Peace'". BBC News. 7 August 2013. Archived from the original on 21 January 2015. Retrieved 7 August 2013.
  174. ^ Otmazgin, Nissim; Lyan, Irina (2019). "Fan Entrepreneurship: Fandom, Agency, and the Marketing of Hallyu in Israel". Kritika Kultura. 32 (32): 288–307. doi:10.13185/KK2019.03214. S2CID 216896076.
  175. ^ Lyan, Irina; Levkowitz, Alon (2015). "From Holy Land to 'Hallyu Land': The Symbolic Journey Following the Korean Wave in Israel". Journal of Fandom Studies. 3 (1): 7–21. doi:10.1386/jfs.3.1.7_1. S2CID 131694946. Archived from the original on 9 April 2022. Retrieved 12 December 2018.
  176. ^ a b "Cultural technology and the making of K-pop". The New Yorker. 1 October 2012. Archived from the original on 24 July 2019. Retrieved 16 March 2023.
  177. ^ a b Shin 2014, p. 422.
  178. ^ Yang 2008, p. 191.
  179. ^ Yang 2008, pp. 202–203: "Fuck your mother's cunt, fuck your mother's cunt, fuck Bae Yong-joon, Fuck Bae Yong-joon. Yuki, A-mei, Coco Lee, suck suck suck suck my dick."
  180. ^ Lie 2014, pp. 144–145.
  181. ^ a b Cho, Hae-Joang (2005). "Reading the 'Korean Wave' as a Sign of Global Shift". Korea Journal. 45 (4): 147–182. S2CID 14568377.
  182. ^ Nam, Soo-hyoun; Lee, Soo-jeong (16 February 2011). "Anti-Korean Wave Backlash Has Political, Historical Causes". Korea JoongAng Daily. Archived from the original on 14 May 2021. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
  183. ^ Williamson, Lucy (15 June 2011). "The Dark Side of South Korean Pop Music". BBC News. Archived from the original on 30 May 2018. Retrieved 27 November 2016.
  184. ^ Cha, Sangmi (4 December 2019). "Factbox: South Korea's K-pop Industry Hit by Tragedies, Scandal in 2019". Reuters. Archived from the original on 13 February 2020. Retrieved 10 March 2020.
  185. ^ Park, Juwon (27 November 2019). "Singer Goo Hara's Death Shines Light on Dark Side of K-pop". AP News. Archived from the original on 14 February 2022. Retrieved 5 December 2019.
  186. ^ Williamson, Lucy (15 June 2011). "The dark side of South Korean pop music". BBC News. Archived from the original on 30 May 2018. Retrieved 21 March 2023.
  187. ^ Stiles, Matt (19 December 2017). "Death of K-pop star shines a spotlight on South Korea's suicide problem". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 19 March 2022. Retrieved 21 March 2023.
  188. ^ Tai, Crystal (29 March 2020). "Exploding the myths behind K-pop". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 19 March 2022. Retrieved 21 March 2023.
  189. ^ Brown, August (5 April 2019). "K-pop's innocent image is shattered by the 'Burning Sun' scandal". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 19 March 2022. Retrieved 19 March 2022.
  190. ^ Kim, Dae-o (4 January 2020). "I have reported on 30 Korean celebrity suicides. The blame game never changes". the Guardian. Archived from the original on 29 June 2021. Retrieved 19 March 2022.
  191. ^ Campbell, Matthew; Kim, Sohee (6 November 2019). "The Dark Side of K-Pop: Assault, Prostitution, Suicide, and Spycams". www.bloomberg.com. Archived from the original on 6 November 2019. Retrieved 19 March 2022.
  192. ^ Smail, Gretchen (10 February 2022). "This K-Drama Is One Of The Most Controversial Shows On Disney+". Bustle. BDG Media. Archived from the original on 12 March 2022. Retrieved 19 March 2022.
  193. ^ Koo, Se-Woong (9 January 2022). "History Becomes Unmentionable in Historical K-Dramas". Korea Exposé. Mediasphere. Archived from the original on 10 March 2022. Retrieved 19 March 2022.
  194. ^ Dongre, Divyansha (23 November 2021). "How Self-appointed Vigilantes are Exploiting Policy Loopholes to 'Police' BTS' ARMY". Rolling Stone India. Archived from the original on 23 November 2021. Retrieved 24 November 2021.
  195. ^ Chakraborty, Riddhi (27 February 2021). "Xenophobic German Presenter's Comments About BTS Are Just the Tip of the Racist Iceberg". Rolling Stone India. Archived from the original on 9 March 2023. Retrieved 9 March 2023.
  196. ^ Sng, Suzanne (7 September 2021). "Billboard for BTS' Jungkook Removed in Pakistan for 'Promoting Homosexuality'". The Straits Times. Archived from the original on 3 November 2021. Retrieved 3 November 2021.
  197. ^ Chin, Monica (18 November 2021). "BTS Fan Twitter Accounts Say They're Being Targeted by Copyright Trolls". The Verge. Archived from the original on 24 November 2021. Retrieved 24 November 2021.
  198. ^ Mitra, Debraj (12 December 2022). "Alarm over kids' obsession with looking thin, finger at Korean pop culture". Telegraph India. Archived from the original on 28 December 2022. Retrieved 28 December 2022.
  199. ^ Park, Si-soo (21 February 2014). "Anti-hallyu Voices Growing in Japan". The Korea Times. Archived from the original on 11 February 2022. Retrieved 21 April 2016.

References

edit
edit
 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Korean Wave.
 
Look up korean wave in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Korean_Wave&oldid=1254007222#Middle_East_and_North_Africa"