History of Southern Africa

The history of Southern Africa has been divided into its prehistory, its ancient history, the major polities flourishing, the colonial period, and the post-colonial period, in which the current nations were formed. Southern Africa is bordered by Central Africa, East Africa, the Atlantic Ocean, the Indian Ocean, and the Sahara Desert. Colonial boundaries are reflected in the modern boundaries between contemporary Southern African states, cutting across ethnic and cultural lines, often dividing single ethnic groups between two or more states.

Map of Southern Africa:
Dark Green: Southern Africa (UN subregion)

Green: Geographic, including above

Light Green: Southern African Development Community (SADC)

Geography edit

 
Satellite imagery of Southern Africa.

The area located at the south of the desert is a steppe, a semi-arid region, called the Sahel. It is the ecoclimatic and biogeographic zone of transition in Africa between the Sahara desert to the north and the Sudanian Savanna to the south. The Sudanian Savanna is a broad belt of tropical savanna that spans the African continent, from the Atlantic Ocean coast in the West Sudanian savanna to the Ethiopian Highlands in the East Sudanian savanna.

Climate edit

In 15,000 BP, the West African Monsoon transformed the landscape of Africa and began the Green Sahara period; greater rainfall during the summer season resulted in the growth of humid conditions (e.g., lakes, wetlands) and the savanna (e.g., grassland, shrubland) in North Africa.[1] Between 5500 BP and 4000 BP, the Green Sahara period ended.[1]

Prehistory edit

By at least 170,000 BP, amid the Middle Stone Age, Southern Africans cooked and ate Hypoxis angustifolia rhizomes at Border Cave, South Africa, which may have provided carbohydrates for their migratory activities.[2]

In 92,000 BP, amid the Middle Stone Age, Malawian foragers utilized fire to influence and alter their surrounding environment.[3]

Between 65,000 BP and 37,000 BP, amid the Middle to Late Stone Age, Southern Africans developed the bow and arrow.[4]

Ancient history edit

Bantu expansion edit

Bantu-speaking peoples migrated, along with their ceramics, from West Africa into other areas of Sub-Saharan Africa.[5] The Kalundu ceramic type may have spread into Southeastern Africa.[5] Additionally, the Eastern African Urewe ceramic type of Lake Victoria may have spread, via African shores near the Indian Ocean, as the Kwale ceramic type, and spread, via Zimbabwe, Zambia, and Malawi, as the Nkope ceramic type.[5]

Though some may have been created later, the earlier red finger-painted rock art may have been created between 6000 BP and 1800 BP, to the south of Kei River and Orange River by Khoisan hunter-gatherer-herders, in Malawi and Zambia by considerably dark-skinned, occasionally bearded, bow-and-arrow-wielding Akafula hunter-gatherers who resided in Malawi until 19th century CE, and in Transvaal by the Vhangona people.[6]

Bantu-speaking farmers, or their Proto-Bantu progenitors, created the later white finger-painted rock art in some areas of Tanzania, Malawi, Angola, Zambia, and Zimbabwe, as well as in the northern regions of Mozambique, Botswana, and Transvaal.[6] The Transvaal (e.g., Soutpansberg, Waterberg) rock art was specifically created by Sotho-speakers (e.g., Birwa, Koni, Tlokwa) and Venda people.[6] Concentric circles, stylized humans, stylized animals, ox-wagons, saurian figures, Depictions of crocodiles and snakes were included in the white finger-painted rock art tradition, both of which were associated with rainmaking and crocodiles in particular, were also associated with fertility.[6] The white finger-painted rock art may have been created for reasons relating to initiation rites and puberty rituals.[6] Depictions from the rock art tradition of Bantu-speaking farmers have been found on divination-related items (e.g., drums, initiation figurines, initiation masks); fertility terracotta masks from Transvaal have been dated to the 1st millennium CE.[6] Along with Iron Age archaeological sites from the 1st millennium CE, this indicates that white finger-painted rock art tradition may have been spanned from the Early Iron Age to the Later Iron Age.[6]

Post-classical history edit

Kingdom of Mapungubwe edit

The largest settlement from what has been dubbed the Leopard's Kopje culture is known as the K2 culture and was the immediate predecessor to the settlement of Mapungubwe.[7] The people of the K2 culture, probably derived from the ancestors of the Shona and Kalanga people of southern Africa,[8] was attracted to the Shashi-Limpopo area, likely because it provided mixed agricultural possibilities.[9] The area was also prime elephant country, providing access to valuable ivory. The control of the gold and ivory trade greatly increased the political power of the K2 culture.[10] By 1075 CE, the population of K2 had outgrown the area and relocated to Mapungubwe Hill.[11]

 
The Golden Rhinoceros of Mapungubwe

Kingdom of Zimbabwe edit

 
Towers of Great Zimbabwe

The kingdom taxed other rulers throughout the region. The kingdom was composed of over 150 tributaries headquartered in their own minor zimbabwes.[12]

Kingdom of Mutapa edit

Mutota's son and successor, Nyanhewe Matope, extended this new kingdom into an empire encompassing most of the lands between Tavara and the Indian Ocean.[13] This empire had achieved uniting a number of different peoples in Southern Africa by building strong, well-trained armies and encouraging states to join voluntarily, offering membership in the Great council of the Empire to any who joined without resistance.[14] Matope's armies overran the kingdom of the Manyika as well as the coastal kingdoms of Kiteve and Madanda.[13] By the time the Portuguese arrived on the coast of Mozambique, the Mutapa Kingdom was the premier state in the region.[13] He raised a strong army which conquered the Dande area of the Tonga and Tavara. The empire had reached its full extent by the year 1480 CE a mere 50 years following its creation.[14]

Kingdom of Butua edit

Prior to becoming a part of the Rozwi kingdom, the Togwa dynasty ruled the kingdom of Butua until 1683 CE.[15]

Torwa dynasty edit

At Khami, the Kalanga people, along with people from Great Zimbabwe, founded the Torwa dynasty.[16]

Kingdom of Maravi edit

Between the 16th century CE and the 19th century CE, the kingdoms of Maravi (e.g., Undi, Lundu, Kalonga) prospered.[17]

Modern history edit

Merina Kingdom edit

By the early 19th century CE, the Merina were able to overcome rival tribes such as the Bezanozano, the Betsimisaraka, and eventually the Sakalava kingdom and bring them under the Merina crown. It is through this process that the ethnonym "Merina" began to be commonly used, as it denotes prominence in the Malagasy language.[18] Though some sources describe the Merina expansion as the unification of Madagascar, this period of Merina expansion was seen by neighboring tribes such as the Betsimisaraka as aggressive acts of colonialism.[19] By 1824 CE, the Merina captured the port of Mahajanga situated on the western coast of the island marking a further expansion of power. Under Radama I, the Merina continued to launch military expeditions that expanded imperial control and enriched military chiefs.[20] The ability of the Merina to overcome neighboring tribes was due to British firepower and military training. The British had an interest in establishing trade with the Merina kingdom due to its central position on the island since 1815 CE. Merina imperial expeditions became more frequent and violent after the renunciation of the second Merina-British treaty. Between 1828 CE and 1840 CE, more than 100,000 men were killed and more than 200,000 enslaved by Merina forces. Imperial rule was met with resistance from escaped slaves and other refugees from imperial rule numbering in the tens of thousands. These refugees formed raiding brigands that were dealt with by imperial troops who hunted them down in 1835 CE. Notably, the rate of escaping refugees only heightened the demand for slave labor in the Merina kingdom, further fueling campaigns of military expansion.[20] Throughout the middle of the 19th century CE, continued imperial expansion and increasing control in coastal trade solidified Merina predominance over the island. The Merina kingdom nearly consolidated all of Madagascar into a single nation before French colonization in 1895 CE.[21]

 
Ranavalona III was the last monarch of Madagascar.

Rozwi Empire edit

Records from the Portuguese show that the Rozvi were sophisticated military strategists. They were noted for using the cow-horn formation years before the great Zulu leader Shaka adopted it in the 19th century CE. Armed with spears, shields, bows and arrows, the aggressive Rozvi took over the Zimbabwe plateau.[22]

Ndwandwe Kingdom edit

The kingdom of Ndwande developed in the 19th century CE due to various kinds of changes (e.g., socioeconomic, political).[23]

Mthethwa Paramountcy edit

According to Muzi Mthethwa (1995), the Mthethwas are descended from the Nguni tribes of northern Natal and the Lubombo Mountains, whose modern identity dates back some 700 years.[24] They are among the first Nguni-Tsonga groups who left the Great Lakes in Central Africa between 200 CE and 1200 CE. On arrival in Southern Africa, they settled around modern-day Swaziland, mainly on the Lubombo Mountains, before leaving in the 17th century CE to settle in modern-day KwaZulu-Natal, in the Nkandla region. It consisted of roughly 30 Nguni Chiefdoms, lineages, and clans. Unlike its successor, the Zulu Kingdom, the Mthethwa Paramountcy was a confederation.[25] After Zulu prince Sigidi kaSenzagakhona (better known as Shaka Zulu) became king, he forged a nearly homogeneous nation with a single king (nkosi).

The Mthethwa Paramountcy was consolidated and extended under the rule of Dingiswayo. The chief entered into an alliance with the Tsonga to the north in the early 19th century CE and began trading Ivory[26] and other things with the Portuguese in Mozambique.

Zulu Kingdom edit

Shaka was the illegitimate son of Senzangakhona, King of the Zulus. He was born c. 1787 CE. He and his mother, Nandi, were exiled by Senzangakhona, and found refuge with the Mthethwa. Shaka fought as a warrior under Jobe, and then under Jobe's successor, Dingiswayo, leader of the Mthethwa Paramountcy. When Senzangakona died, Dingiswayo helped Shaka become chief of the Zulu Kingdom. After Dingiswayo's death at the hands of Zwide, king of the Ndwandwe, around 1818 CE, Shaka assumed leadership of the entire Mthethwa alliance.[27]

Shaka initiated many military, social, cultural and political reforms, forming a well-organized and centralised Zulu state. The most important reforms involved the transformation of the army, through the innovative tactics and weapons, and a showdown with the spiritual leadership, witchdoctors, effectively ensuring the subservience of the "Zulu church" to the state.

The alliance under his leadership survived Zwide's first assault at the Battle of Gqokli Hill in 1818 CE. Within two years, Shaka had defeated Zwide at the Battle of Mhlatuze River in 1820 CE and broken up the Ndwandwe alliance, some of whom in turn began a murderous campaign against other Nguni tribes and clans, setting in motion what became known as Difaqane or Mfecane, a mass-migration of tribes fleeing the remnants of the Ndwandwe fleeing the Zulu. The death toll has never been satisfactorily determined, but the whole region became nearly depopulated. Normal estimates for the death toll during this period range from 1 million to 2 million people. These numbers are however controversial.[28][29][30][31] By 1822 CE, Shaka had conquered an empire covering an area of around 80,000 square miles (210,000 km2).[32]

 
Drawing of King Shaka (c. 1824)

Kingdom of Mthwakazi edit

Mthwakazi is the traditional name of the proto-Ndebele people and Ndebele kingdom and is in the area of today's Zimbabwe.[33][34] Mthwakazi is widely used to refer to inhabitants of Matebeleland Province in Zimbabwe.[35]

Slave trade edit

Colonial period edit

Scramble for Africa edit

Post-colonial period edit

History of Southern African Architecture edit

Further information in the sections of Architecture of Africa:

History of science and technology in Southern Africa edit

Further information in the sections of History of science and technology in Africa:

Military history of Southern Africa edit

Genetic history of Southern Africa edit

From the region of Kenya and Tanzania to South Africa, eastern Bantu-speaking Africans constitute a north to south genetic cline; additionally, from eastern Africa to toward southern Africa, evidence of genetic homogeneity is indicative of a serial founder effect and admixture events having occurred between Bantu-speaking Africans and other African populations by the time the Bantu migration had spanned into South Africa.[36]

Archaic Human DNA edit

While Denisovan and Neanderthal ancestry in non-Africans outside of Africa are more certain, archaic human ancestry in Africans is less certain and is too early to be established with certainty.[37]

Ancient DNA edit

Three Later Stone Age hunter-gatherers carried ancient DNA similar to Khoisan-speaking hunter-gatherers.[38] Prior to the Bantu migration into the region, as evidenced by ancient DNA from Botswana, East African herders migrated into Southern Africa.[38] Out of four Iron Age Bantu agriculturalists of West African origin, two earlier agriculturalists carried ancient DNA similar to Tsonga and Venda peoples and the two later agriculturalists carried ancient DNA similar to Nguni people; this indicates that there were various movements of peoples in the overall Bantu migration, which resulted in increased interaction and admixing between Bantu-speaking peoples and Khoisan-speaking peoples.[38]

Botswana edit

At Nqoma, in Botswana, an individual, dated to the Early Iron Age (900 BP), carried haplogroup L2a1f.[39][40]

At Taukome, in Botswana, an individual, dated to the Early Iron Age (1100 BP), carried haplogroups E1b1a1 (E-M2, E-Z1123) and L0d3b1.[39][40]

At Xaro, in Botswana, there were two individuals, dated to the Early Iron Age (1400 BP); one carried haplogroups E1b1a1a1c1a and L3e1a2, and another carried haplogroups E1b1b1b2b (E-M293, E-CTS10880) and L0k1a2.[39][40]

Malawi edit

Fingira edit

At Fingira rockshelter, in Malawi, an individual, dated between 6179 BP and 2341 BP, carried haplogroups B2 and L0d1.[41]

At Fingira, in Malawi, an individual, estimated to date between 6175 BP and 5913 BP, carried haplogroups BT and L0d1b2b.[42]

At Fingira, in Malawi, an individual, estimated to date between 6177 BP and 5923 BP, carried haplogroups BT and L0d1c.[42]

At Fingira, in Malawi, an individual, estimated to date between 2676 BP and 2330 BP, carried haplogroup L0f.[42]

Chencherere edit

At Chencherere, in Malawi, an individual, estimated to date between 5400 BP and 4800 BP, carried haplogroup L0k2.[42]

At Chencherere, in Malawi, an individual, estimated to date between 5293 BP and 4979 BP, carried haplogroup L0k1.[42]

Hora edit

At Hora 1 rockshelter, in Malawi, an individual, dated between 16,897 BP and 15,827 BP, carried haplogroups B2b and L5b.[41]

At Hora 1 rockshelter, in Malawi, an individual, dated between 16,424 BP and 14,029 BP, carried haplogroups B2b1a2~ and L0d3/L0d3b.[41]

At Hora, in Malawi, an individual, estimated to date between 10,000 BP and 5000 BP, carried haplogroups BT and L0k2.[42]

At Hora, in Malawi, an individual, estimated to date between 8173 BP and 7957 BP, carried haplogroup L0a2.[42]

South Africa edit

At Doonside, in South Africa, an individual, estimated to date between 2296 BP and 1910 BP, carried haplogroup L0d2.[43][44]

At Champagne Castle, in South Africa, an individual, estimated to date between 448 BP and 282 BP, carried haplogroup L0d2a1a.[43][44]

At Eland Cave, in South Africa, an individual, estimated to date between 533 BP and 453 BP, carried haplogroup L3e3b1.[43][44]

At Mfongosi, in South Africa, an individual, estimated to date between 448 BP and 308 BP, carried haplogroup L3e1b2.[43][44]

At Newcastle, in South Africa, an individual, estimated to date between 508 BP and 327 BP, carried haplogroup L3e2b1a2.[43][44]

At St. Helena, in South Africa, an individual, estimated to date between 2241 BP and 1965 BP, carried haplogroups A1b1b2a and L0d2c1.[42]

At Faraoskop Rock Shelter, in South Africa, an individual, estimated to date between 2017 BP and 1748 BP, carried haplogroups A1b1b2a and L0d1b2b1b.[42]

At Kasteelberg, in South Africa, an individual, estimated to date between 1282 BP and 1069 BP, carried haplogroup L0d1a1a.[42]

At Vaalkrans Shelter, in South Africa, an individual, estimated to date to 200 BP, is predominantly related to Khoisan speakers, partly related (15% - 32%) to East Africans, and carried haplogroups L0d3b1.[45]

Ballito Bay edit

At Ballito Bay, in South Africa, an individual, estimated to date between 1986 BP and 1831 BP, carried haplogroups A1b1b2 and L0d2c1.[43][44]

At Ballito Bay, in South Africa, an individual, estimated to date between 2149 BP and 1932 BP, carried haplogroups A1b1b2 and L0d2a1.[43][44]

At Ballito Bay, South Africa, Ballito Boy, estimated to date 1,980 ± 20 cal BP, was found to have Rickettsia felis.[46][47]

Y-Chromosomal DNA edit

Various Y chromosome studies show that the San carry some of the most divergent (oldest) human Y-chromosome haplogroups. These haplogroups are specific sub-groups of haplogroups A and B, the two earliest branches on the human Y-chromosome tree.[48][49][50]

Mitochondrial DNA edit

In 200,000 BP, Africans (e.g., Khoisan of Southern Africa) bearing haplogroup L0 diverged from other Africans bearing haplogroup L1′6, which tend to be northward of Southern Africa.[51] Between 130,000 BP and 75,000 BP, behavioral modernity emerged among Southern Africans and long-term interactions between the regions of Southern Africa and Eastern Africa became established.[51]

Mitochondrial DNA studies also provide evidence that the San carry high frequencies of the earliest haplogroup branches in the human mitochondrial DNA tree. This DNA is inherited only from one's mother. The most divergent (oldest) mitochondrial haplogroup, L0d, has been identified at its highest frequencies in the southern African San groups.[48][52][53][54]

Autosomal DNA edit

In a study published in March 2011, Brenna Henn and colleagues found that the ǂKhomani San, as well as the Sandawe and Hadza peoples of Tanzania, were the most genetically diverse of any living humans studied. This high degree of genetic diversity hints at the origin of anatomically modern humans.[55][56]

Medical DNA edit

Among the ancient DNA from three hunter-gatherers sharing genetic similarity with San people and four Iron Age agriculturalists, their SNPs indicated that they bore variants for resistance against sleeping sickness and Plasmodium vivax.[57] In particular, two out of the four Iron Age agriculturalists bore variants for resistance against sleeping sickness and three out of the four Iron Age agriculturalists bore Duffy negative variants for resistance against malaria.[57] In contrast to the Iron Age agriculturalists, from among the San-related hunter-gatherers, a six year old boy may have died from schistosomiasis.[57] In Botswana, a man, who dates to 1400 BP, may have also carried the Duffy negative variant for resistance against malaria.[57]

The genomes of Africans commonly found to undergo adaptation are regulatory DNA, and many cases of adaptation found among Africans relate to diet, physiology, and evolutionary pressures from pathogens.[36] Throughout Sub-Saharan Africa, genetic adaptation (e.g., rs334 mutation, Duffy blood group, increased rates of G6PD deficiency, sickle cell disease) to malaria has been found among Sub-Saharan Africans, which may have initially developed in 7300 BP.[36] Sub-Saharan Africans have more than 90% of the Duffy-null genotype.[58] In the Kalahari Desert region of Africa, various possible genetic adaptations (e.g., adiponectin, body mass index, metabolism) have been found among the ǂKhomani people.[36] Sub-Saharan Africans have more than 90% of the Duffy-null genotype.[58] In South Africa, genetic adaptation (e.g., rs28647531 on chromosome 4q22) and strong susceptibility to tuberculosis has been found among Coloureds.[36]

Timeline of archaeological cultures and sites edit

List of archaeological cultures and sites edit

References edit

  1. ^ a b Pausata, Francesco S.R.; et al. (2016). "Impacts of dust reduction on the northward expansion of the African monsoon during the Green Sahara period". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 434: 298–307. Bibcode:2016E&PSL.434..298P. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2015.11.049.
  2. ^ Wadley, Lyn; Backwell, Lucinda; D'Errico, Francesco; Sievers, Christine (3 Jan 2020). "Cooked starchy rhizomes in Africa 170 thousand years ago". Science. 367 (6473): 87–91. Bibcode:2020Sci...367...87W. doi:10.1126/science.aaz5926. OCLC 8527136604. PMID 31896717. S2CID 209677578.
  3. ^ Thompson, Jessica C.; et al. (5 May 2021). "Early human impacts and ecosystem reorganization in southern-central Africa". Science Advances. 7 (19). Bibcode:2021SciA....7.9776T. doi:10.1126/sciadv.abf9776. OCLC 9579895150. PMC 8099189. PMID 33952528. S2CID 233871035.
  4. ^ Hitchcock, Robert K.; Crowell, Aron; Brooks, Alison (14 February 2019). "The ethnoarchaeology of Ambush Hunting: A Case Study of ǂGi Pan, Western Ngamiland, Botswana". African Archaeological Review. 36: 119–144. doi:10.1007/S10437-018-9319-X. ISSN 0263-0338. OCLC 8031623872. S2CID 166634393.
  5. ^ a b c Vicente, Mario (2020). Demographic History and Adaptation in African Populations (PDF). Acta Universitatis Upsaliens Uppsala. pp. 15–16. ISBN 978-91-513-0889-0. ISSN 1651-6214.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g Prins, Frans E.; Hall, Sian (1994). "Expressions of fertility, in the rock art of Bantu-speaking agriculturists" (PDF). African Archaeological Review. 12: 173–175, 197–198. doi:10.1007/BF01953042. ISSN 0263-0338. JSTOR 25130575. OCLC 5547024308. S2CID 162185643.
  7. ^ Hrbek, page 322
  8. ^ "Kingdoms of southern Africa: Mapungubwe | South African History Online".
  9. ^ Hrbek, page 323
  10. ^ Hrbek, page 326
  11. ^ Hrbek, page 324
  12. ^ Owomoyela, Oyekan (2002). Culture and Customs of Zimbabwe. Greenwood. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-313-31583-1.
  13. ^ a b c Oliver, page 204
  14. ^ a b Williams, Chancellor (1987). The Destruction of Black Civilisation. Third World Press. pp. 280. ISBN 9780883780305.
  15. ^ "Butua". Encyclopaedia Britannica.
  16. ^ Mazarire, Gerald Chikozho. "'The Invisible Boundaries of the Karanga: Considering Pre-Colonial Shona Territoriality and its meanings in Contemporary Zimbabwe'" (PDF). University of Zimbabwe.
  17. ^ Newitt, Malyn (2016). "Maravi Kingdom". The Encyclopedia of Empire. Wiley. pp. 1–2. doi:10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe035. ISBN 9781118455074.
  18. ^ Larson, Pier M. (1996). "Desperately Seeking 'the Merina' (Central Madagascar): Reading Ethnonyms and Their Semantic Fields in African Identity Histories". Journal of Southern African Studies. 22 (4): 541–560. doi:10.1080/03057079608708511. ISSN 0305-7070. JSTOR 2637156.
  19. ^ Cole, Jennifer, 1966- (2001). Forget colonialism? : sacrifice and the art of memory in Madagascar. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-92682-0. OCLC 49570321.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  20. ^ a b Campbell, Gwyn (1981). "Madagascar and the Slave Trade, 1810-1895". The Journal of African History. 22 (2): 203–227. doi:10.1017/S0021853700019411. ISSN 0021-8537. JSTOR 181583. S2CID 161991146.
  21. ^ "Merina | people". Encyclopedia Britannica.
  22. ^ "Rozvi". Encyclopædia Britannica.
  23. ^ Ndlovu‐Gatsheni, Sabelo J. (2016). "Nguni empires". The Encyclopedia of Empire. Wiley. pp. 1–8. doi:10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe161. ISBN 9781118455074.
  24. ^ Muzi Mthethwa (1995), "The History of abakwaMthethwa, Research Project", Department of History, University of Zululand.
  25. ^ Morris, page 42
  26. ^ "Mthethwa - historical state, Africa". Britannica.
  27. ^ Wilkinson, Stephan (2017-03-14). "Shaka Zulu: Africa's Napoleon?". HistoryNet.
  28. ^ Walter, Eugene Victor (1969). Terror and Resistance: A Study of Political Violence, with Case Studies of Some Primitive African Communities. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195015621.
  29. ^ Charters, R. A. (Major, Royal Artillery) (1839). "Notices of the Cape And Southern Africa, Since The Appointment, As Governor, Of Major-Gen. Sir Geo. Napier". United Service Journal and Naval and Military Magazine. 1839, Part III (September, October, November). Henry Colburn: 19–25, 171–179, 352–359.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  30. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica, 15th edition
  31. ^ Hanson, Victor Davis (2001). Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise to Western Power. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 313. ISBN 978-0-307-42518-8.
  32. ^ Gluckman, Max (1960). "The Rise of a Zulu Empire". Scientific American. 202 (4): 162. Bibcode:1960SciAm.202d.157G. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0460-157. ISSN 0036-8733. JSTOR 24940454. By 1822 he had made himself master over 80,000 square miles
  33. ^ "Bulelani Lobengula crowned the Ndebele King". 1 October 2018.
  34. ^ "Brief History of Mthwakazi (English)".
  35. ^ Mthwakazi Foundation Inc. Retrieved 2012-08-09.
  36. ^ a b c d e Pfennig, Aaron; et al. (March 29, 2023). "Evolutionary Genetics and Admixture in African Populations". Genome Biology and Evolution. 15 (4): evad054. doi:10.1093/gbe/evad054. OCLC 9817135458. PMC 10118306. PMID 36987563. S2CID 257803764.
  37. ^ Bergström, Anders; et al. (February 2021). "Origins of modern human ancestry" (PDF). Nature. 590 (7845): 229–237. Bibcode:2021Natur.590..229B. doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03244-5. PMID 33568824. S2CID 231883210.
  38. ^ a b c Choudhury, Ananyo; et al. (April 2021). "Bantu-speaker migration and admixture in southern Africa". Human Molecular Genetics. 30 (R1): R56–R63. doi:10.1093/hmg/ddaa274. PMC 8117461. PMID 33367711.
  39. ^ a b c Wang, Ke; et al. (June 2020). "Ancient genomes reveal complex patterns of population movement, interaction, and replacement in sub-Saharan Africa". Science Advances. 6 (24): eaaz0183. Bibcode:2020SciA....6..183W. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aaz0183. PMC 7292641. PMID 32582847.
  40. ^ a b c Wang, Ke; et al. (June 2020). "Supplementary Materials for Ancient genomes reveal complex patterns of population movement, interaction, and replacement in sub-Saharan Africa" (PDF). Science Advances. 6 (24): eaaz0183. Bibcode:2020SciA....6..183W. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aaz0183. PMC 7292641. PMID 32582847.
  41. ^ a b c Lipson, Mark; et al. (23 February 2022). "Extended Data Table 1 Ancient individuals analysed in this study: Ancient DNA and deep population structure in sub-Saharan African foragers". Nature. 603 (7900): 290–296. Bibcode:2022Natur.603..290L. doi:10.1038/s41586-022-04430-9. ISSN 0028-0836. OCLC 9437356581. PMC 8907066. PMID 35197631. S2CID 247083477.
  42. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Skoglund, Pontus; et al. (September 2017). "Reconstructing Prehistoric African Population Structure". Cell. 171 (1): 59–71.e21. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2017.08.049. PMC 5679310. PMID 28938123.
  43. ^ a b c d e f g Schlebusch, Carina M.; et al. (November 2017). "Southern African ancient genomes estimate modern human divergence to 350,000 to 260,000 years ago". Science. 358 (6363): 652–655. Bibcode:2017Sci...358..652S. doi:10.1126/science.aao6266. PMID 28971970. S2CID 206663925.
  44. ^ a b c d e f g Schlebusch, Carina M.; et al. (3 November 2017). "Supplementary Materials for Southern African ancient genomes estimate modern human divergence to 350,000 to 260,000 years ago" (PDF). Science. 358 (6363): 652–655. Bibcode:2017Sci...358..652S. doi:10.1126/science.aao6266. PMID 28971970. S2CID 206663925.
  45. ^ Coutinho, Alexandra; et al. (April 2021). "Later Stone Age human hair from Vaalkrans Shelter, Cape Floristic Region of South Africa, reveals genetic affinity to Khoe groups". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 174 (4): 701–713. doi:10.1002/ajpa.24236. hdl:11250/2763572. ISSN 0002-9483. OCLC 8971087113. PMID 33539553. S2CID 213563734.
  46. ^ Rifkin, Riaan F.; et al. (March 3, 2023). "Rickettsia felis DNA recovered from a child who lived in southern Africa 2000 years ago". Communications Biology. 6 (1): 240. doi:10.1038/s42003-023-04582-y. OCLC 9786799123. PMC 9984395. PMID 36869137. S2CID 257312840.
  47. ^ Rifkin, Riaan F.; et al. (March 3, 2023). "Supplementary Notes 1-7 for Rickettsia felis DNA recovered from a child who lived in southern Africa 2,000 years ago" (PDF). Communications Biology. 6 (1): 240. doi:10.1038/s42003-023-04582-y. OCLC 9786799123. PMC 9984395. PMID 36869137. S2CID 257312840.
  48. ^ a b Knight, Alec; et al. (March 2003). "African Y chromosome and mtDNA divergence provides insight into the history of click languages". Current Biology. 13 (6): 464–473. doi:10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00130-1. ISSN 0960-9822. OCLC 4931666146. PMID 12646128. S2CID 52862939.
  49. ^ Hammer, MF; et al. (July 2001). "Hierarchical patterns of global human Y-chromosome diversity". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 18 (7): 1189–1203. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a003906. ISSN 0737-4038. OCLC 8092394585. PMID 11420360. S2CID 28304418.
  50. ^ Naidoo, Thijessen; et al. (September 2010). "Development of a single base extension method to resolve Y chromosome haplogroups in sub-Saharan African populations". Investigative Genetics. 1 (1): 6. doi:10.1186/2041-2223-1-6. OCLC 5632083214. PMC 2988483. PMID 21092339. S2CID 18243824.
  51. ^ a b Sá, Luísa; et al. (16 August 2022). "Phylogeography of Sub-Saharan Mitochondrial Lineages Outside Africa Highlights the Roles of the Holocene Climate Changes and the Atlantic Slave Trade". International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 23 (16): 9219. doi:10.3390/ijms23169219. ISSN 1661-6596. OCLC 9627558751. PMC 9408831. PMID 36012483. S2CID 251653686.
  52. ^ Chen, Yu-Sheng; et al. (April 2000). "mtDNA variation in the South African Kung and Khwe-and their genetic relationships to other African populations". American Journal of Human Genetics. 66 (4): 1362–1383. doi:10.1086/302848. OCLC 679558953. PMC 1288201. PMID 10739760. S2CID 31258611.
  53. ^ Tishkoff, S. A.; et al. (October 2007). "History of click-speaking populations of Africa inferred from mtDNA and Y chromosome genetic variation". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 24 (10): 2180–2195. doi:10.1093/molbev/msm155. ISSN 0737-4038. OCLC 8090974992. PMID 17656633. S2CID 17282053.
  54. ^ Schlebusch, Carina M.; et al. (November 2009). "SNaPshot minisequencing to resolve mitochondrial macro-haplogroups found in Africa". Electrophoresis. 30 (21): 3657–3664. doi:10.1002/elps.200900197. ISSN 0173-0835. OCLC 5151862048. PMID 19810027. S2CID 19515426.
  55. ^ Henn, Brenna; et al. (March 2011). "Hunter-gatherer genomic diversity suggests a southern African origin for modern humans". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 108 (13). National Academy of Sciences: 5154–5162. Bibcode:2011PNAS..108.5154H. doi:10.1073/pnas.1017511108. ISSN 0027-8424. JSTOR 41125668. OCLC 9529060694. PMC 3069156. PMID 21383195. S2CID 12423756.
  56. ^ Kaplan, Matt (2011). "Gene Study Challenges Human Origins in Eastern Africa". Scientific American. Nature Publishing Group. ISSN 0036-8733. OCLC 1775222.
  57. ^ a b c d Pfeiffer, Susan (2020). "Disease as a Factor in the African Archaeological Record". The African Archaeological Review. 37 (3): 487–490. doi:10.1007/s10437-020-09405-7. ISSN 0263-0338. OCLC 8671686339. PMC 7445818. PMID 32863518. S2CID 221320841.
  58. ^ a b Wonkam, Ambroise; Adeyemo, Adebowale (March 8, 2023). "Leveraging our common African origins to understand human evolution and health" (PDF). Cell Genomics. 3 (3): 100278. doi:10.1016/j.xgen.2023.100278. PMC 10025516. PMID 36950382. S2CID 257458855.
  59. ^ Berwick, Robert C.; Chomsky, Noam (2016). Why Only Us: Language and Evolution. MIT Press. p. 37. ISBN 9780262034241.
  60. ^ Kuhn, Brian F.; et al. "Renewed investigations at Taung; 90 years after thediscovery ofAustralopithecus africanus" (PDF). Palaeontologia africana.
  61. ^ Pickering, Robyn; Kramers, Jan D. (2010). "Re-appraisal of the stratigraphy and determination of new U-Pb dates for the Sterkfontein hominin site, South Africa". Journal of Human Evolution. 59 (1): 70–86. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2010.03.014. PMID 20605190.
  62. ^ a b Stammers, Rhiannon C. "Thefirst bone tools from Kromdraai and stone tools from Drimolen, and theplace of bone tools in the South African Earlier Stone Age" (PDF). Quaternary International.
  63. ^ Steininger, Christine; et al. (April 2008). "A partial skull of Paranthropus robustus from Cooper's Cave, South Africa". South African Journal of Science. 104 (3–4): 143–146.
  64. ^ Smith, Patricia; et al. (January 2012). "Canteen Kopje: a new look at an old skull". South African Journal of Science. 108 (1–2): 01–09. doi:10.4102/sajs.v108i1/2.738.
  65. ^ D'Errico, Francesco; Backwell, Lucinda. "Possible Evidence of Bone Tool Shaping by Swartkrans Early Hominids". Journal of Archaeological Science.
  66. ^ Berger, L.R.; Lacruz, R. "Preliminary report on the firstexcavations at the new fossil siteof Motsetse, Gauteng,South Africa". South African Journal of Scienc.
  67. ^ Berna, Francesco. "Microstratigraphic evidence of in situfire in theAcheulean strata of Wonderwerk Cave, Northern Cape province, South Africa" (PDF). Francesco Berna.
  68. ^ Petraglia, Michael (2004). "The large cutting tools from the South African Acheulean and the question of social traditions". Current Anthropology. 45 (5): 653. doi:10.1086/423973. S2CID 163124683.
  69. ^ Dirks, Paul HGM; et al. (2017). "The age of Homo naledi and associated sediments in the Rising Star Cave, South Africa". eLife. 6. doi:10.7554/eLife.24231. PMC 5423772. PMID 28483040.
  70. ^ Clark, J.D. (1969). Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site: Volume 3, The Earlier Cultures: Middle and Earlier Stone Age. Cambridge University Press. p. 28. ISBN 9780521200714.
  71. ^ Cruz-Uribe, Kathryn; et al. "Excavation of buried Late Acheulean (Mid-Quaternary) land surfaces at Duinefontein 2, Western Cape Province, South Africa". Journal of Archaeological Science.
  72. ^ Backwell, Lucinda; et al. "Probable human hair found in a fossil hyaena coprolite from Gladysvale cave, South Africa". Journal of Archaeological Science.
  73. ^ Kuman, K.; Clarke, R. "Florisbad—New investigations at a middle stone age Hominid Site in South Africa" (PDF). Geoarchaeology.
  74. ^ Avery, D.M. (2003). "Early and Middle Pleistocene environments and hominid biogeography; micromammalian evidence from Kabwe, Twin Rivers and Mumbwa Caves in central Zambia". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 189 (1–2): 55–69. Bibcode:2003PPP...189...55A. doi:10.1016/S0031-0182(02)00593-X.
  75. ^ Marean, Curtis W. "The stratigraphy of the Middle Stone Age sediments at Pinnacle PointCave 13B (Mossel Bay, Western Cape Province, South Africa)" (PDF). Journal of Human Evolution.
  76. ^ Kyriacou, K. (2015). "Middle and Later Stone Age shellfish exploitation strategies and coastal foraging at Hoedjiespunt and Lynch Point, Saldanha Bay, South Africa". Journal of Archaeological Science. 57: 197–206. Bibcode:2015JArSc..57..197K. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2015.01.018.
  77. ^ Mercader, Julio; et al. (2009). "Initial excavation and dating of Ngalue Cave: A Middle Stone Age site along the Niassa Rift, Mozambique". Journal of Human Evolution. 57 (1): 63–74. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2009.03.005. PMID 19487015.
  78. ^ a b c d e f g Backwell, Lucinda; D'Errico, Francesco; Wadley, Lyn. "Middle Stone Age bone tools from the Howiesons Poort layers,Sibudu Cave, South Africa" (PDF). Journal of Archaeological Science.
  79. ^ Lovell, Nancy C; Palichuk, Kimberley E. "Task activity and tooth wear in a woman of ancient Egypt". Bioarchaeology of Marginalized People.
  80. ^ Jacobs, Zenobia; et al. (2008). "Ages for the Middle Stone Age of Southern Africa: Implications for Human Behavior and Dispersal". Science. 322 (5902): 733–735. Bibcode:2008Sci...322..733J. doi:10.1126/science.1162219. hdl:1885/32902. PMID 18974351. S2CID 206514762.
  81. ^ O. Davies (1964)
  82. ^ J. D. Clark (1967)
  83. ^ Gibson, N. E.; Wadley, L.; Williamson, B. S. "Microscopic residues as evidence of hafting on backed tools from the 60 000 to 68 000 year-old Howiesons Poort layers of Rose Cottage Cave, South Africa". Southern African Humanities. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.902.9496.
  84. ^ Pargeter, Justin. "New ages from Boomplaas Cave, South Africa, provideincreased resolution on late/terminal Pleistocene humanbehavioural variability" (PDF). Azania: Archaeological Research In Africa.
  85. ^ Verna, Christine; et al. (2013). "The Middle Stone Age human remains from Diepkloof Rock Shelter (Western Cape, South Africa)". Journal of Archaeological Science. 40 (9): 3532–3541. Bibcode:2013JArSc..40.3532V. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2013.04.011.
  86. ^ Brophy, Juliet; et al. (2008). "Faunal assemblage composition and paleoenvironment of Plovers Lake, a Middle Stone Age locality in Gauteng Province, South Africa". Journal of Human Evolution. 55 (6): 1102–1117. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.07.011. PMID 18954892.
  87. ^ Herries, Andy I. R. "A Chronological Perspective on the Acheulian and ItsTransition to the Middle Stone Age in Southern Africa:The Question of the Fauresmith" (PDF). International Journal of Evolutionary Biology.
  88. ^ Bird, M.I.; et al. (2003). "Radiocarbon dating from 40 to 60 ka BP at Border Cave, South Africa". Quaternary Science Reviews. 22 (8–9): 943–947. Bibcode:2003QSRv...22..943B. doi:10.1016/S0277-3791(03)00005-2.
  89. ^ Watling, Sarah Elizabeth. "What Does The Mine Have To Tell Us? Art As A Reclamation Streategy In The Post-Mined Landscape Of The Oldest Known Mine In The World, Ngwenya Mine Swaziland" (PDF). University of Maryland.
  90. ^ Haaland, Magnus; et al. "Pleistocene Figurative Art Mobilier From Apollo 11 Cave, Karas Region, Southern Namibia". South African Archaeological Bulletin.
  91. ^ Porraz, Guillaume; et al. "A shape to the microlithic Robberg from Elands BayCave (South Africa)". Southern African Humanities.
  92. ^ Robbins, Lawrence H.; et al. "World's Oldest Ritual Site? The"Python Cave" at Tsodilo Hills World Heritage Site, Botswana" (PDF). Nyame Akuma.
  93. ^ Muianga, Décio. "Rock Art and Ancient Material Culture of Cahora Bassa Dam, Tete Province, Mozambique". University of the Witwatersrand.
  94. ^ Robinson, Joshua R.; Rowan, John (2017). "Holocene paleoenvironmental change in southeastern Africa (Makwe Rockshelter, Zambia): Implications for the spread of pastoralism". Quaternary Science Reviews. 156: 57–68. Bibcode:2017QSRv..156...57R. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2016.11.030.
  95. ^ "Matsieng Footprints". Botswana Tourism Board. Archived from the original on 2010-07-25.
  96. ^ Imalwa, Emma. "Analysis of the Management of Twyfelfontein World Heritage Site, Namibia" (PDF). Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro.
  97. ^ Dubow, Saul. "Henri Breuil And The Imagination Of Prehistory:'Mixing Up Rubble, Trouble And Stratification'". South African Archaeological Society Goodwin Series.
  98. ^ Jerardino, Antonieta. "Mid- to late-Holocene sea-level fluctuations: the archaeological evidence at Tortoise Cave, south-western Cape, South Africa". Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Wetenskap.
  99. ^ a b c Bräuer, Günter; Friedrich, Wilhelm Rösing (Dec 3, 2018). Afrika II: Südafrika: Human biological history of southern Africa. Le peuplement de Madagascar. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. ISBN 9783486825848.
  100. ^ Morris, David Roger Neacalbann McIntyre. "Driekopseiland and "the rain's magic power': history and landscape in a new interpretation of a Northern Cape rock engraving site" (PDF). University of Western Cape.
  101. ^ Huffman, Thomas. "The stylistic origin of Bambata and the spread of mixed farming in southern Africa". Southern African Humanities.
  102. ^ Huffman, Thomas. "Mapungubwe and Great Zimbabwe: The Origin and Spread of Social Complexity in Southern Africa". Journal of Anthropological Archaeology.
  103. ^ Robertshaw, Peter; et al. "Glass finds from Chibuene, a 6th to 17th century AD port in southern Mozambique". The South African Archaeological Bulletin.
  104. ^ "Toutswemogala Hill Iron Age Settlement". UNESCO.
  105. ^ Huffman, Thomas. "A cultural proxy for drought: ritual burning in the Iron age of Southern Africa". Journal of Archaeological Science.
  106. ^ Huffman, Tom. "Mapungubwe and Great Zimbabwe: The origin and spread of social complexity in southern Africa". Journal of Anthropological Archaeology.
  107. ^ De Wit, Michiel C. J. (2018). "Prospecting history leading to the discovery of Botswana's diamond mines: from artefacts to Lesedi La Rona". Mineralogy and Petrology. 112 (1): 7–22. Bibcode:2018MinPe.112....7D. doi:10.1007/s00710-018-0556-0. hdl:2263/64747. S2CID 189943118.
  108. ^ Ossola, Paola; Grechi, Daniele (2020). Botswana Cultural Heritage and Sustainable Tourism Development A Handbook of Theory and Practice. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 253. ISBN 9781527549562.
  109. ^ Seitsonen, Oula. "Lithics After Stone Age In East Africa Wadh Lang'o Case Study" (PDF). University Of Helsinki Institute For Cultural Studies.
  110. ^ Jopela, Albino Pereira de Jesus. "Traditional Custodianship Of Rock Art Sites In Southern Africa: A Case Study From Central Mozambique" (PDF). University of the Witwatersrand.
  111. ^ Chirikure, Shadreck; et al. (2013). "New Pathways of Sociopolitical Complexity in Southern Africa". African Archaeological Review. 30 (4): 339–366. doi:10.1007/s10437-013-9142-3. hdl:2263/41780. S2CID 254192991.
  112. ^ Swanepoel, Natalie; Esterhuysen, Amanda (Aug 1, 2008). Five Hundred Years Rediscovered: Southern African precedents and prospects. NYU Press. ISBN 9781776142286.
  113. ^ "The Bokoni story unearthed". Mail & Guardian Online.
  114. ^ McIntosh, Susan Keech; Fagan, Brian M. "Re-dating the Ingombe Ilede burials". Antiquity.
  115. ^ Pikirayi, Innocent (2002). The Zimbabwe Culture Origins and Decline of Southern Zambezian States. AltaMira Press. ISBN 9780585386492.
  116. ^ Vogel, J.C.; et al. "Pretoria Radiocarbon Dates III" (PDF). Radiocarbon.
  117. ^ Litherland, M.; et al. (1975). "Rock Engravings from Mamuno". Botswana Notes and Records. 7: 19–28. JSTOR 40979420.
  118. ^ Boeyens, J.C.A.; Plug, I. "'A chief is like an ash-heap on which is gathered all therefuse': the faunal remains from the central court middenat Kaditshwene" (PDF). Annals Of The Ditsong National Museum Of Natural History.
  119. ^ Haynes, Gary. "Puzzling over the Bumbusi Spoor Engravings in Zimbabwe". SAA.
  120. ^ Anderson, Mark Steven. "The historical archaeology of Marothodi : towards an understanding of space, identity and the organisation of production at an early 19th century Tlokwa capital in the Pilansberg region of South Africa". University of Cape Town.
  121. ^ Reid, Andrew M.; Lane, Paul J. (Nov 30, 2003). African Historical Archaeologies. Springer. ISBN 9780306479960.
  122. ^ Bednarski, Cezary M. "Urbanisation in Africa –Taking Angola as an Example" (PDF). IABSE Conference –Structural Engineering: Providing Solutions to Global Challenge.