Afro–Virgin Islanders

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Afro–Virgin Islanders,[1][2] African Virgin Islanders,[3] or Black Virgin Islanders,[4] are people of the African diaspora who reside in the United States Virgin Islands,[1][2] British Virgin Islands, and Spanish Virgin Islands, which, overall, constitutes the Virgin Islands.

Origins

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4,919 enslaved Africans were forcibly transported from the Bight of Benin.[5] 16,203 enslaved Africans were forcibly transported from the Bight of Biafra.[5] 18,618 enslaved Africans were forcibly transported from the Gold Coast.[5] 1,149 enslaved Africans were forcibly transported from Senegambia.[5] 1,635 enslaved Africans were forcibly transported from Sierra Leone.[5] 2,818 enslaved Africans were forcibly transported from the Windward Coast.[5] 12,774 enslaved Africans were forcibly transported from western Central Africa.[5] 28,638 enslaved Africans were forcibly transported from an unspecified region(s) in Africa.[5] Of the 86,910 enslaved Africans who were forcibly transported, 73,109, or 84%, arrived in the United States Virgin Islands and British Virgin Islands.[5]

History

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The British Virgin Islands' census, which reflected the transition from subsistence agriculture and cotton to the more labor-intense production of sugar, corresponded with the growth of its population: 547 Afro–Virgin Islanders in 1717; 1,509 Afro–Virgin Islanders in 1720; 6,121 Afro–Virgin Islanders in 1756; 9,000 Afro–Virgin Islanders in 1774; and 9,220 Afro–Virgin Islanders in 1805.[6]

Culture

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The Spanish Virgin Islands, British Virgin Islands, and United States Virgin Islands are connected with one another through their historic statuses of being United Statescolonies.[7] Additionally, the islands are interconnected through their considerable numbers of diasporic African populations and their diasporic African cultural heritage (e.g., cuisines, cuisine preparation, cultural pride in African/Cocolo heritage, farm-based economy, popular music, religious music).[7]

Language

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Virgin Islands Creole is limited in its written attestation prior to 1900.[8] However, the earlier developed Virgin Islands language, Negerhollands, provides supportive evidence for its diagnostic traits existing much earlier than 1900.[8] The diagnostic traits, which derive from African languages, are found in both Virgin Islands Creole and Negerhollands.[8] Saint Kitts Creole and Virgin Islands Creole also share many of the same words found in African languages.[8] Regarding the diagnostic traits found in Virgin Islands Creole, in descending order, the following ethnic groups were found among enslaved Africans in the Virgin Islands: "Amina, Karabari, Ibo, Sokko, Watje, Kassenti, Congo, Kanga, Papa, Loango, Angola and Fula."[8] Additionally, in ascending order, the following languages were spoken among enslaved Africans in the Virgin Islands: "Akan, Gbe, Igbo, and several West Bantu languages."[8] Further, the Akan language contributed significantly to the development of Virgin Islands Creole.[8] Furthermore, languages from the Gold Coast also contributed significantly to the development of Virgin Islands Creole.[8]

Music

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Since the enslavement period of Afro–Virgin Islanders in the United States Virgin Islands, the musical and dance culture of Cariso in St. Croix and Bamboula in St. Thomas has existed.[9] Compared to Bamboula and Cariso, Quelbe is a younger cultural tradition.[10] Though Bamboula and Cariso have undergone a decrease in popularity in the Virgin Islands, the popularity of Quelbe has increased.[10]

Demography

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Out of 110,000 people, Afro–Virgin Islanders, who are the most numerous group, constitute approximately 48% of the population in the United States Virgin Islands.[1] Afro-Caribbean people also constitute approximately 27% of its population.[1]

In the Spanish Virgin Islands, Black Virgin Islanders constitute 56% of Culebra’s 1,818 residents and, possibly due to undercounting, 28% of Vieques’ 9,301 residents.[7]

Religion

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Genetics

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Saint Thomas

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Autosomal DNA

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In addition to being found to have 2.6% (±2.1%) Native American and 10.6% (±2.3%) European ancestry, Afro–Virgin Islanders from St. Thomas, who were sampled in 2008, were found to be 86.8% (±2.2%) West African.[11] In addition to being found to have 5.6% (±4.9%) Native American and 16.9% (±21.1%) European ancestry, Afro–Virgin Islanders from Saint Thomas, who were sampled in 2013, were found to be 77.4% (±21.9%) West African.[12]

Medical DNA

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Risk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated with chronic kidney disease, which are common among populations of Sub-Saharan African ancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of western Central African ancestry and origin.[13]

Some infectious diseases are protected against due to African ancestry.[13] Hereditary blood disorders, such as sickle cell anemia and thalassemia, produce an effect on the development of hemoglobin, which, consequently, prevents the reproduction of malaria parasites within the erythrocyte.[13] Populations with West African ancestry, which come as a result of the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[13]

References

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  1. ^ a b c d Boyce Davies, Carole (2008). "Virgin Islands". Encyclopedia of the African Diaspora Origins, Experiences, and Culture. ABC-CLIO. p. 958. ISBN 978-1-85109-705-0. S2CID 160373114.
  2. ^ a b Flewellen, Ayana Omilade (1 December 2019). "African Diasporic Choices: Locating the Lived Experiences of Afro-Crucians in the Archival and Archaeological Record". Nordisk Tidsskrift for Informationsvidenskab og Kulturformidling. 8 (2): 56. doi:10.7146/ntik.v7i2.118481. S2CID 212858993.
  3. ^ Hendricks, Derick A. (May 2009). "Black awareness and social unrest in the U.S. Virgin Islands: A case study of black nationalism, 1968–1986". Morgan State University: 10. doi:10.13016/M2CV4BV11. S2CID 162695771. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  4. ^ Roopnarine, Lomarsh (November 2010). "Social identity in the modern United States Virgin Islands". Social Identities. 16 (6): 791. doi:10.1080/13504630.2010.524786. ISSN 1350-4630. S2CID 143824382.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i Blouet, Helen C. (2 August 2013). "Interpretations of Burial and Commemoration in Moravian and African Diasporas on St. John, Virgin Islands". International Journal of Historical Archaeology. 17 (4): 750. doi:10.1007/s10761-013-0241-2. S2CID 154741901.
  6. ^ O'Neal, Michael E. (Feb 21, 2012). "The Era of the Plantation". Slavery, Smallholding and Tourism: Social Transformations in the British Virgin Islands. Quid Pro Books. pp. Unnumbered. ISBN 978-1-61027-119-6.
  7. ^ a b c Kalunta-Crumpton, Anita (Mar 3, 2016). Kalunta-Crumpton, Anita (ed.). Pan-African Issues in Drugs and Drug Control: An International Perspective. Routledge. p. Unnumbered. doi:10.4324/9781315599335. ISBN 9781315599335. S2CID 217952621.
  8. ^ a b c d e f g h Avram, Andrei A. (14 Jul 2014). "The distribution of diagnostic features in English-lexifier contact languages: Virgin Islands Creole". Acta Linguistica Hafniensia. 45 (2): 217, 220–221. doi:10.1080/03740463.2013.901597. S2CID 144668413.
  9. ^ Soule, Mary Jane; Lieth-Philip, Margot (January 1, 1993). "Zoop Zoop Zoop: Traditional Music and Folklore of St. Croix, St. Thomas, and St. John" (PDF). Liner Notes. pp. 5–6.
  10. ^ a b Gangelhoff, Christine; LeGrand, Cathleen (2011). "Art Music by Caribbean Composers: U.S. Virgin Islands". International Journal of Bahamian Studies. 17 (1): 1. doi:10.15362/IJBS.V17I1.131. S2CID 191469146.
  11. ^ Benn-Torres, J.; et al. (January 2, 2008). "Admixture and Population Stratification in African Caribbean Populations". Annals of Human Genetics. 72 (1): 071003002530001––. doi:10.1111/j.1469-1809.2007.00398.x. PMID 17908263. S2CID 28510744.
  12. ^ Torres, Jada Benn; Stone, Anne C.; Kittles, Rick (29 March 2013). "An anthropological genetic perspective on creolization in the anglophone caribbean". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 151 (1): 137. doi:10.1002/ajpa.22261. PMID 23553646. S2CID 5211235.
  13. ^ a b c d Tříska, Petr (2016). "Genetic Legacy Of Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade In Present Populations: Anthropological And Clinical Context" (PDF). University of Porto. pp. 47, 49–50. S2CID 132835585.