Orders of magnitude (temperature)

List of orders of magnitude for temperature

Factor	Multiple	Item
0	0 K	Absolute zero: free bodies are still, no interaction within or without a thermodynamic system
10⁻³⁰	1 qK	Particular speeds bound paths to exceed the size and lifetime of the universe, i.e. the particle's total path traveled (but not the distance from its place of origin) since the beginning of the universe is less than the size of the universe^{[further explanation needed]} (see least-energy in orders of magnitude (energy))
10⁻¹⁸	1 aK	Macroscopic quantum tunnelling of matter can occur^{[citation needed]} Hawking temperature of supermassive black holes
10⁻¹⁵	1 fK	Atomic waves coherent over centimeters Atomic particles decoherent over centimeters
10⁻¹²	1 pK	38 pK, lowest laboratory-produced temperature, achieved through matter-wave lensing of rubidium Bose-Einstein condensates.^[1] 450 pK, lowest temperature sodium Bose–Einstein condensate gas ever achieved in the laboratory, at MIT^[2]
10⁻⁹	1 nK	50 nK, Fermi temperature of potassium-40 Critical temperature of alkali Bose–Einstein condensates
10⁻⁶	1 μK	Nuclear demagnetization Doppler-cooled refrigerants in laser cooling and magneto-optical traps
10⁻³	1 mK	Radio excitations 1.7 mK, temperature record for helium-3/helium-4 dilution refrigeration, and the lowest temperature which may be sustained for arbitrarily long time with known techniques. 2.5 mK, Fermi melting point of helium-3 60 mK adiabatic demagnetization of paramagnetic molecules 300 mK in evaporative cooling of helium-3 700 mK, helium-3/helium-4 mixtures begin phase separation 950 mK, melting point of helium at 2.5 megapascals of pressure. All 118 elements are solid at or below this temperature. microwave excitations
1	1 K	1 K at the Boomerang Nebula, the coldest natural environment known 1.5 K, melting point of overbound helium 2.19 K, lambda point of overbound superfluid helium 2.725 K, cosmic microwave background 4.1 K, superconductivity point of mercury 4.22 K, boiling point of bound helium 5.19 K, critical temperature of helium 7.2 K, superconductivity point of lead 9.3 K, superconductivity point of niobium
10¹	10 K	Fermi melting point of valence electrons for superconductivity 14.01 K, melting point of bound hydrogen 20.28 K, boiling point of bound hydrogen 33 K, critical temperature of hydrogen 44 K mean on Pluto 53 K mean of Neptune 63 K, melting point of bound nitrogen 68 K mean of Uranus 77.35 K, boiling point of bound nitrogen 90.19 K, boiling point of bound oxygen 92 K, superconductivity point of Y–Ba–Cu–oxide (YBCO)
10²	100 K	Infrared excitations 134 K, highest-temperature superconductor at ambient pressure, mercury barium calcium copper oxide 165 K, glass point of supercooled water 184.0 K (–89.2 °C), coldest air recorded on Earth 192 K, Debye temperature of ice 273.15 K (0 °C), melting point of bound water 273.16 K (0.01 °C), temperature of triple point of water c. 293 K, room temperature 373.15 K (100 °C), boiling point of bound water at sea level 647 K, critical point of superheated water 737.5 K, mean on Venus See detailed list below
10³	1 kK	Visible light excitations 500–2200 K on brown dwarfs (photosphere) 1043 K Curie temperature of iron (point at which iron transitions from ferromagnetic to paramagnetic behavior and loses any permanent magnetism) 1170 K at wood fire 1300 K in lava flows, open flames 1500 K in basalt lava flows c. 1670 K at blue candle flame 1811 K, melting point of iron (lower for steel) 1830 K in Bunsen burner flame 1900 K at the Space Shuttle orbiter hull in 8 km/s dive 2022 K, boiling point of lead 2074 K, surface temperature of the coolest star, 2MASS J0523-1403 2230 K, Debye temperature of carbon 2320 K at open hydrogen flame 2150–2450 K at open hydrocarbon flame 2900 K, color temperature of halogen lamps, black-body radiation maximum at 1000 nm 3695 K, melting point of tungsten 3915 K, sublimation point of carbon 4231 K, melting point of hafnium carbide 4800 K, 10 MPa, triple point of carbon^[3] 5000 K, 12 GPa melting point of diamond^[4] 5100 K in cyanogen–dioxygen flame 5516 K at dicyanoacetylene (carbon subnitride)–ozone flame 5650 K at Earth's Inner Core Boundary 5780 K on surface of the Sun 5933 K, boiling point of tungsten 6000 K, mean of the Universe 300,000 years after the Big Bang 7445 K, 850 GPa;^[5] 8750 K, 520 GPa;^[6] 5400 K, 220 GPa,^[7] critical point of diamond/solid III 7735 K, a monatomic ideal gas has one electron volt of kinetic energy 8000 K, routinely sustainable temperature in an analytical inductively coupled plasma 8801 K, 10.56 GPa^[8] 7020.5 K, 797 MPa,^[9] critical point of carbon Anionic sparks Ultraviolet excitations
10⁴	10 kK	10 kK on Sirius A 10–15 kK in mononitrogen recombination 15.5 kK, critical point of tungsten 25 kK, mean temperature of the universe 10,000 years after the Big Bang 26 kK on the white dwarf Sirius B 28 kK in record cationic lightning over Earth 29 kK on surface of Alnitak (easternmost star of Orion's belt) 4–8–40–160 kK^{[clarification needed]} on white dwarfs 30–400 kK on a planetary nebula's asymptotic giant helium star 36 kK boundary between inner and outer core within Jupiter 37 kK in proton–electron reactions 38 kK on Eta Carinae 46 kK on Wolf–Rayet star R136a1^[10] 50 kK at protostar (core) 54.5 kK on ON2 III(f*) star LH64-16^[11] >200 kK in Butterfly Nebula c. 300 kK at 17 meters from Little Boy's detonation Fermi boiling point of valence electrons X-ray excitations
10⁶	1 MK	0.8 MK in solar wind Gamma ray excitations 1 MK inside old neutron stars, brown dwarfs, and at gravital deuterium fusion range 1–3–10 MK^{[clarification needed]} above Sun (corona) 2.4 MK at T Tauri stars and gravital lithium-6 fusion range 2.5 MK at red dwarfs and gravital protium fusion range 10 MK at orange dwarfs and gravital helium-3 fusion range 15.6 MK at Sun's core 10–30–100^{[clarification needed]} MK in stellar flares 20 MK in novae 23 MK, beryllium-7 fusion range 60 MK above Eta Carinae 85 MK (15 keV) in a magnetic confinement fusion plasma 200 MK at helium star and gravital helium-4 fusion range 230 MK, gravital carbon-12 fusion range 460 MK, gravital neon fusion–disproportionation range 5–530 MK in Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor's plasma 750 MK, gravital oxygen fusion range
10⁹	1 GK	1 GK, everything 100 seconds after the Big Bang 1.3–1.7 GK, gravital silicon fusion range 3 GK in electron–positron reactions 10 GK in supernovae 10 GK, everything 1 second after the Big Bang 700 GK in quasars' accretion discs 740 GK, Hagedorn temperature or Fermi melting point of pions
10¹²	1 TK	0.1–1 TK at new neutron star 0.5–1.2 TK, Fermi melting point of hadrons into quark–gluon plasma 3–5 TK in proton–antiproton reactions 3.6 TK, temperature at which matter doubles in mass (compared to its mass at 0 K) due to relativistic effects 5.5 TK, highest man-made temperature in thermal equilibrium as of 2015 (quark–gluon plasma from LHC collisions)^[12] 10 TK, 100 microseconds after the Big Bang 45–67 TK at collapsar of a gamma-ray burst 300–900 TK at proton–nickel conversions in the Tevatron's Main Injector^{[clarification needed]}
10¹⁵	1 PK	0.3–2.2 PK at proton–antiproton collisions 2.8 PK within an electroweak star
10¹⁸	1 EK
10²¹	1 ZK
10²⁴	1 YK	0.5–7 YK at ultra-high-energy cosmic ray collisions
10²⁷	1 RK	Everything 10⁻³⁵ seconds after the Big Bang
10³⁰	1 QK	Hagedorn temperature of strings
10³²	100 QK	142 QK, Planck temperature
10³³	1000 QK	Theory of everything excitations^{[citation needed]}
10²⁹⁰	10²⁶⁰ QK	Landau pole of quantum electrodynamics

Detailed list for 100 K to 1000 K

Most ordinary human activity takes place at temperatures of this order of magnitude. Circumstances where water naturally occurs in liquid form are shown in light grey.

Kelvin	Degrees Celsius	Degrees Fahrenheit	Condition
100 K	−173.15 °C	−279.67 °F
133 K	−140 °C	−220 °F	Mean on Saturn^[13]
133 K to 163 K	−140 to −110 °C	−220 to −160 °F	Typical temperature of a whole-body cryotherapy chamber^[14]
163 K	−110 °C	−166 °F	Mean on Jupiter^[13]
165 K	−108 °C	−163 °F	Glass point of supercooled water (Debatable)^[15]
175.4 K	−97.8 °C	−144 °F	Coldest luminance temperature recorded on Earth (measured remotely by satellite), in Antarctica^[16]
183.7 K	−89.5 °C	−129.1 °F	Freezing/melting point of isopropyl alcohol^[17]
183.9 K	−89.2 °C	−128.6 °F	Coldest officially recorded air temperature on Earth, at Vostok Station, Antarctica on 1983-07-21 01:45 UTC
192 K	−81 °C	−114 °F	Debye temperature of ice
193 to 203 K	−80 to −70 °C	−112 to −94 °F	Typical temperature of a ULT freezer
194.6 K	−78.5 °C	−109.3 °F	Sublimation point of carbon dioxide (dry ice)
203.55 K	−69.6 °C	−93.3 °F	Coldest officially recorded air temperature in the Northern Hemisphere at Klinck AWS, Greenland (Denmark) on 1991-12-22^[18]
205.5 K	−67.7 °C	−89.9 °F	Coldest officially recorded air temperature on the Eurasian continent at Oymyakon, USSR on 6 February 1933^[19]^{[full citation needed]}
210 K	−63 °C	−80 °F	Mean on Mars
214.9 K	–58.3 °C	–72.9 °F	Coldest annual mean temperature on Earth, at Dome Argus, Antarctica^[20]^{[full citation needed]}
223.15 K	−50 °C	−58 °F	Mean on Earth during Snowball Earth period^[21]^{[full citation needed]} around 650 million years ago
224.8 K	−48.4 °C	−55.0 °F	Coldest temperature that water can remain a liquid (see Supercooling)
225 K	−48 °C	−55 °F	Freezing/melting point of cottonseed oil^[22]
233.15 K	−40 °C	−40 °F	Intersecting point of the Celsius and Fahrenheit temperature scales Skin may freeze almost instantly at or below this temperature^[23]^{[full citation needed]}
234.3 K	−38.83 °C	−37.89 °F	Freezing/melting point of mercury
240.4 K	−32.8 °C	−27.0 °F	Coldest air temperature recorded in South America, at Sarmiento, Argentina on 1907-06-01^[24]
246 K	−27 °C	−17 °F	Approximate average yearly temperature on Mount Everest^[25]
249 K	–24 °C	–11 °F	Freezing/melting point of flax seed oil^[22]
249.3 K	–23.9 °C	–11.0 °F	Coldest air temperature recorded in Africa, at Ifrane, Morocco on 11 February 1935^[24]
250 K	–23 °C	–9 °F	Coldest air temperature recorded in Australia, at Charlotte Pass, New South Wales, Australia on 1994-06-29^[24]
255.37 K	–177⁄9 °C	0 °F	Coldest brine–ice solution found by Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit
255 K	–18 °C	0 °F	Freezing/melting point of almond oil^[22] Typical temperature of a household freezer^[26]
256 K	–17 °C	1 °F	Freezing/melting point of sunflower oil^[22]
256 K	–17 °C	2 °F	Freezing/melting point of safflower oil^[22]
257 K	–16 °C	3 °F	Freezing/melting point of soybean oil^[22]^{[full citation needed]}
262 K	−11 °C	12 °F	Freezing/melting point of corn oil^[22]^{[full citation needed]}
263.15 K	–10 °C	14 °F	Freezing/melting point of canola oil^[22] Freezing/melting point of grape seed oil^[22]^{[full citation needed]}
265 K	–8 °C	18 °F	White frost can form below this temperature Freezing/melting point of hemp seed oil^[22]^{[full citation needed]}
265.8 K	–7.2 °C	19 °F	Freezing/melting point of bromine
267 K	–6 °C	21 °F	Freezing/melting point of olive oil^[22] Freezing/melting point of sesame oil^[22]
271.15 K	−2 °C	28.4 °F	Average freezing/melting point of oceans, the salinity is around 3.47%.^[27]^[28]
273.14 K	-0.01 °C	31.98 °F	Maximum temperature of an object causing frostbite
273.15 K	0.00 °C	32.00 °F	Freezing/melting point of fresh water (at 1 atm pressure)
273.16 K	0.01 °C	32.02 °F	Triple point of fresh water
276 K	3 °C	37 °F	Freezing/melting point of peanut oil^[29]
277 K	3.85 °C	39 °F	Typical temperature of a household refrigerator
277.13 K	3.98 °C	39.16 °F	Water is at maximum density^[30]^{[full citation needed]}
279.8 K	6.67 °C	44 °F	Threshold of skin numbness if skin reaches this temperature
283.2 K	10 °C	50 °F	Minimum temperature for most plant growth (see Growing degree-day)
286.9 K	12.7 °C	54.9 °F	Coldest body temperature of a human that survived accidental hypothermia (a 2-year-old boy in Racławice, Poland, on November 30, 2014)^[31]^[32]
287.6 K	14.44 °C	58 °F	Cold threshold of pain if skin reaches this temperature
288 K	15 °C	59 °F	Mean on Earth
291.6 K	18.4 °C	65.1 °F	Hottest temperature in Antarctica, recorded on 2020 February 6 at the Esperanza Base^[33]
294 K	21 °C	70 °F	Commonly defined value for room temperature
296 K	23 °C	73 °F	Mean on Earth during the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum^[34] about 55.8 million years ago^{[full citation needed]}
297 K	24 °C	75 °F	Melting/freezing point of palm kernel oil^[22]
298 K	25 °C	77 °F	Melting/freezing point of coconut oil^[22]
300 K	27 °C	81 °F	Thermoneutral temperature of an unclothed human at rest^[35]^[36] Estimated melting/freezing point of francium
302.9 K	29.8 °C	85.6 °F	Melting/freezing point of gallium
303.15 K	30 °C	86 °F	The rate of plant growth is typically no greater above this temperature than at this temperature. (see Growing degree-day)
304 K	31 °C	88 °F	Melting/freezing point of butter, critical point for carbon dioxide
307 K	34 °C	93 °F	Autoignition temperature of white phosphorus
307.6 K	34.4 °C	93.9 °F	Hottest annual mean temperature on Earth, at Dallol, Ethiopia^[20]
308 K	35 °C	95 °F	Hypothermic body temperature for humans (see Hypothermia) Warmest sea measured, at the Red Sea Melting/freezing point of palm oil^[22]
309.5 K	36.4 °C	97.5 °F	Average body temperature for a human^[37]^{[full citation needed]}
311.03 K	37.87 °C	100.2 °F	Beginnings of a fever for humans
311.8 K	38.6 °C	101.5 °F	Average body temperature for a cat^[38]^{[full citation needed]}
313.15 K	40 °C	104 °F	Maximum standard temperature recommended for hot tub users^[39]^{[full citation needed]}
315 K	42 °C	108 °F	Usually fatal human fever
317.6 K	44.44 °C	112 °F	Hot threshold of pain if skin reaches this temperature
319.7 K	46.5 °C	115.7 °F	Highest human fever survived (Willie Jones)^[40]^{[full citation needed]}
321.45 K	48.3 °C	119 °F	World's hottest air temperature recorded while raining, at Imperial, California, USA on July 24, 2018^[41]}}
322.1 K	48.9 °C	120.0 °F	Hottest air temperature recorded in South America, at Rivadavia, Argentina on 1905-12-11^[24] Maximum safe temperature for hot water according to numeric U.S. plumbing codes^[42] Water will cause a second-degree burn after 8 minutes and a third-degree burn after 10 minutes^[42]
323.14 K	49.99 °C	121.99 °F	Half-way point between freezing and boiling
323.9 K	50.7 °C	123.3 °F	Hottest air temperature recorded in the Southern Hemisphere, at Oodnadatta, Australia on 1960-02-01^[24]
329.87 K	56.7 °C	134.1 °F	Hottest measured air temperature on Earth, in Death Valley at Furnace Creek, Inyo County, California, United States of America on 10 July 1913.^[43]
333.15 K	60 °C	140 °F	Water will cause a second-degree burn in 3 seconds and a third-degree burn in 5 seconds^[42] Average temperature of a hair dryer
336 K	63 °C	145.4 °F	Milk pasteurization
342 K	69 °C	157 °F	Boiling point of water on the summit of Mount Everest^[44]^{[full citation needed]}
343.15 K	70 °C	158 °F	Food is well done Hot springs at which some bacteria thrive^[45]
350 K	77 °C	170 °F	Poaching of food
351.52 K	78.37 °C	173.07 °F	Boiling point of ethanol
353.15 K	80 °C	176 °F	Average temperature of a sauna
355 K	82 °C	180 °F	Recommended final rinse temperature in industrial-grade commercial dishwashers^[46]^{[full citation needed]}
355.6 K	82.4 °C	180.3 °F	Boiling point of isopropyl alcohol^[17]
366 K	93 °C	200 °F	Simmering of food
367 K	94 °C	201 °F	Hottest ground temperature recorded on Earth at Furnace Creek, Death Valley, California, USA on 1972-07-15^[47]^{[full citation needed]}
371 K	98 °C	209 °F	Freezing/melting point of sodium
373.13 K	99.98 °C	211.97 °F	Boiling point of water at 1 atm pressure (see Celsius)
380 K	107 °C	225 °F	Smoke point of raw safflower oil Syrup^[vague] is concentrated to 75% sugar
388 K	115 °C	239 °F	Melting/freezing point of sulfur
400 K	127 °C	260 °F	Concorde nose tip during supersonic flight Coldest known stars in space (approximate temperature)^[48]^{[full citation needed]}
433.15 K	160 °C	320 °F	Syrup^[vague] is concentrated to 100% sugar Sucrose (table sugar) caramelizes ^{[full citation needed]}}}
450 K	177 °C	350 °F	Mean on Mercury Smoke point of butter Deep frying
453.15 K	180 °C	356 °F	Popcorn pops
483 K	210 °C	410 °F	Autoignition (kindling) point of diesel fuel
491 K	218 °C	425 °F	Kindling point of paper
519 K	246 °C	475 °F	Kindling point of automotive gasoline
522 K	249 °C	480 °F	Kindling point of jet fuel (Jet A/Jet A-1)^[49]^{[full citation needed]}
525 K	252 °C	485 °F	Smoke point of milkfat Kindling point of jet fuel (Jet B)^[49]
538 K	265 °C	510 °F	Smoke point of refined safflower oil
574.5875 K	301.4375 °C	574.5875 °F	Intersecting point of the Fahrenheit and Kelvin temperature scales
600.65 K	327.5 °C	621.5 °F	Melting/freezing point of lead
647 K	374 °C	705 °F	Critical point of superheated water
693 K	419 °C	787 °F	Melting/freezing point of zinc
723.15 K	450 °C	842 °F	Kindling point of aviation gasoline^[49]
738 K	465 °C	870 °F	Mean on Venus
749 K	476 °C	889 °F	Kindling point of magnesium
773.15 K	500 °C	932 °F	Oven on self-cleaning mode
798 K	525 °C	977 °F	Draper point (the point at which nearly all objects start to glow dim red)^[50]
858 K	585 °C	1085 °F	Kindling point of hydrogen^[51]
933.47 K	660.32 °C	1220.58 °F	Melting/freezing point of aluminium
1000 K	726.85 °C	1340.33 °F

SI multiples

SI multiples of kelvin (K)
Submultiples			Multiples
Value	SI symbol	Name	Value	SI symbol	Name
10⁻¹ K	dK	decikelvin	10¹ K	daK	decakelvin
10⁻² K	cK	centikelvin	10² K	hK	hectokelvin
10⁻³ K	mK	millikelvin	10³ K	kK	kilokelvin
10⁻⁶ K	μK	microkelvin	10⁶ K	MK	megakelvin
10⁻⁹ K	nK	nanokelvin	10⁹ K	GK	gigakelvin
10⁻¹² K	pK	picokelvin	10¹² K	TK	terakelvin
10⁻¹⁵ K	fK	femtokelvin	10¹⁵ K	PK	petakelvin
10⁻¹⁸ K	aK	attokelvin	10¹⁸ K	EK	exakelvin
10⁻²¹ K	zK	zeptokelvin	10²¹ K	ZK	zettakelvin
10⁻²⁴ K	yK	yoctokelvin	10²⁴ K	YK	yottakelvin
10⁻²⁷ K	rK	rontokelvin	10²⁷ K	RK	ronnakelvin
10⁻³⁰ K	qK	quectokelvin	10³⁰ K	QK	quettakelvin

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^ https://www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/cold-out-why-you-need-to-wear-a-hat Harvard Health Publishing - Cold out? Why you need to wear a hat!
^ Harvard Health Publishing - Time to redefine normal body temperature? https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/time-to-redefine-normal-body-temperature-2020031319173
^ http://people.rit.edu/hmm5837/320/project2/page4.html Archived 2013-11-12 at the Wayback Machine Rochester Institute for Technology – Random Cat Facts
^ http://www.jacuzzi.com/hot-tubs/hot-tub-blog/ideal-hot-tub-water-temperature/ Archived 2017-01-26 at the Wayback Machine. Finding The Ideal Hot Tub Temperature. Jacuzzi
^ http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/clock.html Biological Rhythums
^ "Hottest Rain on Record? Rain Falls at 119°F in Imperial, California". www.wunderground.com. Retrieved 2024-07-26.
^ ^a ^b ^c "Antiscald Inc". Archived from the original on 2014-09-13. Retrieved 2014-09-12.
^ "Highest recorded temperature". Guinness World Records. 10 July 1913. Retrieved 20 August 2018.
^ http://science.howstuffworks.com/dictionary/chemistry-terms/boiling-info.htm HowStuffWorks – Boiling
^ Seckbach, Joseph; et al. (2013). Polyextremophiles – life under multiple forms of stress. Dordrecht: Springer. preface. ISBN 978-94-007-6487-3.
^ "Residential Dishwashers". National Sanitation Foundation. Retrieved on 26 May 2017. http://www.nsf.org/consumer-resources/health-and-safety-tips/home-product-appliance-tips/sanitizing-dishwasher/
^ http://www.nps.gov/deva/naturescience/weather-and-climate.htm National Park Service – Death Valley – Weather and Climate
^ http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/research/Stars.shtml University of Hawaii – Institute for Astronomy
^ ^a ^b ^c International Fire Training Centre: Firefighter initial: aviation fuels and fuel tanks Archived 2018-02-19 at the Wayback Machine - International Fire Training Centre
^ Draper, John William (1847). "On the production of light by heat". The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science. 30 (202). Taylor & Francis: 345–359. doi:10.1080/14786444708647190.
^ "Spontaneous ignition of hydrogen" (PDF). Health and Safety Executive. 2008.

External links

Online Temperature Conversion

[1] Deppner, Christian; Herr, Waldemar; Cornelius, Merle; Stromberger, Peter; Sternke, Tammo; Grzeschik, Christoph; Grote, Alexander; Rudolph, Jan; Herrmann, Sven; Krutzik, Markus; Wenzlawski, André (2021-08-30). "Collective-Mode Enhanced Matter-Wave Optics". Physical Review Letters. 127 (10): 100401. Bibcode:2021PhRvL.127j0401D. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.127.100401. ISSN 0031-9007. PMID 34533345. S2CID 237396804.

[2] "Bose-Einstein condensates break temperature record". Archived from the original on 2012-04-02. Retrieved 2010-09-27.

[3] Savvatimskii, Aleksandr I (2003). "Melting point of graphite and liquid carbon (Concerning the paper 'Experimental investigation of the thermal properties of carbon at high temperatures and moderate pressures' by E. I. Asinovskii, A. V. Kirillin, and A. V. Kostanovskii)". Physics-Uspekhi. 46 (12): 1295–1303. Bibcode:2003PhyU...46.1295S. doi:10.1070/PU2003v046n12ABEH001699. S2CID 250746507.

[4] Yang, C. C.; Li, S. (2008). "Size-Dependent Temperature-Pressure Phase Diagram of Carbon". Journal of Physical Chemistry C. 112 (5): 1423–1426. doi:10.1021/jp076049+.

[5] Correa, A. A.; Bonev, S. A.; Galli, G. (2006). "Carbon under extreme conditions: Phase boundaries and electronic properties from first-principles theory". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 103 (5): 1204–1208. Bibcode:2006PNAS..103.1204C. doi:10.1073/pnas.0510489103. PMC 1345714. PMID 16432191.

[6] Wang, Xiaofei; Scandolo, Sandro; Car, Roberto (2005). "Carbon Phase Diagram from Ab Initio Molecular Dynamics". Physical Review Letters. 95 (18): 185701. Bibcode:2005PhRvL..95r5701W. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.95.185701. PMID 16383918. S2CID 15373344.

[7] Gerald I. Kerley and Lalit Chhabildas, "Multicomponent-Multiphase Equation of State for Carbon", Sandia National Laboratories (2001)

[8] Glosli, James; Ree, Francis (1999). "Liquid-Liquid Phase Transformation in Carbon". Physical Review Letters. 82 (23): 4659–4662. Bibcode:1999PhRvL..82.4659G. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.82.4659.

[9] Man Chai Chang; Ryong, Ryoo; Mu Shik Jhon (1985). "Thermodynamic properties of liquid carbon". Carbon. 23 (5): 481–485. Bibcode:1985Carbo..23..481M. doi:10.1016/0008-6223(85)90083-1.

[bestenlehner2020-10] Bestenlehner, Joachim M.; Crowther, Paul A.; Caballero-Nieves, Saida M.; Schneider, Fabian R. N.; Simón-Díaz, Sergio; Brands, Sarah A.; De Koter, Alex; Gräfener, Götz; Herrero, Artemio; Langer, Norbert; Lennon, Daniel J.; Maíz Apellániz, Jesus; Puls, Joachim; Vink, Jorick S. (2020). "The R136 star cluster dissected with Hubble Space Telescope/STIS. II. Physical properties of the most massive stars in R136". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 499 (2): 1918. arXiv:2009.05136. Bibcode:2020MNRAS.499.1918B. doi:10.1093/mnras/staa2801.

[11] Massey, Philip; Bresolin, Fabio; Kudritzki, Rolf P.; Puls, Joachim; Pauldrach, A. W. A. (2004). "The Physical Properties and Effective Temperature Scale of O-Type Stars as a Function of Metallicity. I. A Sample of 20 Stars in the Magellanic Clouds". The Astrophysical Journal. 608 (2): 1001–1027. arXiv:astro-ph/0402633. Bibcode:2004ApJ...608.1001M. doi:10.1086/420766. S2CID 119373878.

[12] "Highest man-made temperature". Guinness World Records. Jim Pattison Group. Retrieved 16 August 2015.

[science.nasa.gov-13] "Solar System Temperatures - NASA Science". science.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2023-10-20.

[14] "Whole-Body Cryotherapy FAQs". Coyne Medical. 9 December 2020. Retrieved 2023-10-11.

[15] Jestin Baby Mandumpal (2017). A Journey Through Water: A Scientific Exploration of The Most Anomalous Liquid on Earth. Bentham Science Publishers. p. 148. ISBN 9781681084237.

[16] "New study explains Antarctica's coldest temperature". National Snow and Ice Data Center. 25 June 2018. Retrieved 5 May 2021.

[rubalc-17] National Research Council (US) Committee on Toxicology (1984). Read "Emergency and Continuous Exposure Limits for Selected Airborne Contaminants: Volume 2" at NAP.edu. doi:10.17226/690. ISBN 978-0-309-07774-3. PMID 25032441.

[18] "Northern Hemisphere: Lowest Temperature". World Weather & Climate Extremes Archive. World Meteorological Organization. Retrieved 2024-01-06.

[coldplaces-19] Weather Underground – Coldest Places on Earth

[current-20] ttp://www.currentresults.com/Weather-Extremes/ Current Results – Worlds Hottest and Coldest Places

[21] 'Snowball Earth' Scenario Plunged Our Planet Into Million-Year Winters

[vegbak-22] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o Veganbaking.net – Fat and Oil Melt Point Temperatures http://www.veganbaking.net/tools/fat-and-oil-melt-point-temperatures

[23] ttp://www.weathernotebook.org/transcripts/2001/02/07.html Archived 2013-11-06 at the Wayback Machine The Weather Notebook – 40 Below

[continentasu-24] ttp://wmo.asu.edu/ ASU World Meteorological Organization – Global Weather & Climate Extremes

[25] "Temperature Everest Summit". Himalayan Wonders. 30 July 2014. Retrieved 2023-10-11. (Temperature calculated by averaging monthly temperatures given in graph)

[26] "Freezing and food safety". USDA. Archived from the original on 18 September 2013. Retrieved 6 August 2013.

[27] "Can the ocean freeze? Ocean water freezes at a lower temperature than freshwater". NOAA. Archived from the original on July 6, 2020. Retrieved January 2, 2019.

[28] Chester, Roy; Jickells, Tim (2012). Marine Geochemistry. Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-118-34907-6.

[29] ttp://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/askasci/chem03/chem03265.htm Archived 2015-02-26 at the Wayback Machine U.S. Dept. of Energy – Office of Science – Oils and Low Temperature

[30] ttp://www.esf.edu/efb/schulz/Limnology/mixing.html Archived 2018-08-23 at the Wayback Machine College of Environmental Science and Forestry – Thermal Stratification

[31] Agence France Presse (2014-12-05). "Doctors hail miracle as toddler survives freezing conditions in pyjamas". The Guardian. Warsaw. Retrieved 2015-02-03.

[32] "2-letni Adaś wyprowadzony z hipotermii. Światowe media donoszą o cudownym dziecku z Polski". Polskie Radio. 2015-12-05. Retrieved 2015-02-03.

[33] "New record for Antarctic continent reported". World Meteorological Organization. Retrieved 7 February 2020.

[34] ttps://www.climate.gov/news-features/climate-qa/whats-hottest-earths-ever-been What's the hottest Earth's ever been?

[35] Rintamäki, Hannu (2007). "Human responses to cold". Alaska Medicine. 49 (2 Suppl): 29–31. PMID 17929604.

[36] ttps://www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/cold-out-why-you-need-to-wear-a-hat Harvard Health Publishing - Cold out? Why you need to wear a hat!

[Redefine-37] Harvard Health Publishing - Time to redefine normal body temperature? https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/time-to-redefine-normal-body-temperature-2020031319173

[38] ttp://people.rit.edu/hmm5837/320/project2/page4.html Archived 2013-11-12 at the Wayback Machine Rochester Institute for Technology – Random Cat Facts

[39] ttp://www.jacuzzi.com/hot-tubs/hot-tub-blog/ideal-hot-tub-water-temperature/ Archived 2017-01-26 at the Wayback Machine. Finding The Ideal Hot Tub Temperature. Jacuzzi

[40] ttp://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/clock.html Biological Rhythums

[41] "Hottest Rain on Record? Rain Falls at 119°F in Imperial, California". www.wunderground.com. Retrieved 2024-07-26.

[antiscald.com-42] "Antiscald Inc". Archived from the original on 2014-09-13. Retrieved 2014-09-12.

[GWR-43] "Highest recorded temperature". Guinness World Records. 10 July 1913. Retrieved 20 August 2018.

[44] ttp://science.howstuffworks.com/dictionary/chemistry-terms/boiling-info.htm HowStuffWorks – Boiling

[45] Seckbach, Joseph; et al. (2013). Polyextremophiles – life under multiple forms of stress. Dordrecht: Springer. preface. ISBN 978-94-007-6487-3.

[46] "Residential Dishwashers". National Sanitation Foundation. Retrieved on 26 May 2017. http://www.nsf.org/consumer-resources/health-and-safety-tips/home-product-appliance-tips/sanitizing-dishwasher/

[47] ttp://www.nps.gov/deva/naturescience/weather-and-climate.htm National Park Service – Death Valley – Weather and Climate

[48] ttp://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/research/Stars.shtml University of Hawaii – Institute for Astronomy

[aviation-fuels-49] International Fire Training Centre: Firefighter initial: aviation fuels and fuel tanks Archived 2018-02-19 at the Wayback Machine - International Fire Training Centre

[50] Draper, John William (1847). "On the production of light by heat". The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science. 30 (202). Taylor & Francis: 345–359. doi:10.1080/14786444708647190.

[51] "Spontaneous ignition of hydrogen" (PDF). Health and Safety Executive. 2008.

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